Εξώφυλλο

Εκτίμηση των σφαλμάτων και της αβεβαιότητας του υετού στη νότια Αφρική σε περιοχικές κλιματικές προσομοιώσεις: διερεύνηση των φυσικών διεργασιών = Εκτίμηση των σφαλμάτων και της αβεβαιότητας του υετού στη νότια Αφρική σε περιοχικές κλιματικές προσομοιώσεις: διερεύνηση των φυσικών διεργασιών.

Maria Chara Karypidou

Περίληψη


The climate of southern Africa is characterized by a plethora of distinct permanent and semi permanent atmospheric features that are interconnected at various levels of complexity, both over land and over the two adjacent oceans. The current Thesis aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the modeled and observed precipitation climatology over southern Africa, in all tools that are currently available in the climate community. Additionally, it aims to investigate the impact that the lateral boundary conditions exert on Regional Climate Model (RCM) simulations performed in the context of CORDEX-Africa, and to further investigate the dynamical processes over the study region that are responsible for precipitation in the CORDEX-Africa ensemble. Lastly, a series of RCM simulations using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model is used, with the purpose to examine the impact of cumulus parameterization schemes on precipitation over southern Africa.
It is concluded that RCM simulations significantly improve monthly precipitation amounts in the southern African region (CORDEX-0.44), relative to Global Climate Models (GCMs) from which they receive lateral boundary conditions (CMIP5). Moreover, the higher spatial resolution of the CORDEX-Africa ensemble allows the more accurate representation of topography, compared to that in the coarse resolution GCMs. This results to the low-tropospheric moisture inflow from the tropical Indian Ocean being correctly blocked by the mountains over the Tanzania region and hindering it from progressing towards the central southern African region, as is erroneously the case in the CMIP5 ensemble. In all months and for the various subregions considered, the regional models systematically reduce the precipitation bias, relative to the driving global models. Sensitivity experiments were performed using the WRF model, examining the impact of the cumulus parameterization scheme on several aspects of the southern Africa precipitation regime.
The simulations showed that precipitation is significantly affected by the cumulus parameterization scheme and the results were consistent regardless of the study period. More specifically, the Betts - Miller – Janjic and New - Tiedtke schemes produced the more realistic results (compared to satellite precipitation products and the ERA5 reanalysis dataset) for the entire study period (rainy season 2012-2013), but also for the intense precipitation event examined during January 2013, over south-eastern South Africa. The Kain - Fritsch scheme displayed an overestimation of precipitation throughout the study period.

Το κλίμα της νότιας Αφρικής χαρακτηρίζεται από μια πληθώρα μόνιμων και ημιμόνιμων ατμοσφαιρικών χαρακτηριστικών που συνδέονται μεταξύ τους σε διάφορα επίπεδα πολυπλοκότητας, τόσο στην ξηρά όσο και στους δύο γειτνιάζοντες ωκεανούς. Η παρούσα Διατριβή στοχεύει στο να προσφέρει μια ολοκληρωμένη επισκόπηση της μοντελοποιημένης και παρατηρούμενης κλιματολογίας βροχοπτώσεων στη νότια Αφρική, αξιοποιώντας όλα τα εργαλεία που είναι επί του παρόντος διαθέσιμα στην κλιματική κοινότητα. Επιπλέον, στοχεύει στη διερεύνηση της επίδρασης που ασκούν οι πλευρικές οριακές συνθήκες στις προσομοιώσεις Περιοχικών Κλιματικών Μοντέλων που πραγματοποιούνται στο πλαίσιο του CORDEX-Africa. Επιπρόσθετα, αποσκοπεί στη διερεύνηση των δυναμικών διεργασιών στην περιοχή μελέτης που είναι υπεύθυνες για τη δημιουργία βροχόπτωσης στο σύνολο του σμήνους προσομοιώσεων του CORDEX-Africa. Τέλος, πραγματοποιείται μια σειρά προσομοιώσεων με χρήση του Weather Research and Forecasting μοντέλου (WRF), με σκοπό να εξεταστεί ο αντίκτυπος των σχημάτων παραμετροποίησης της ανωμεταφοράς στις διαδικασίες της βροχόπτωσης στη νότια Αφρική.
Συμπεραίνεται πως οι περιοχικές κλιματικές προσομοιώσεις βελτιώνουν σημαντικά τα μηνιαία ποσά βροχοπτώσεων στην περιοχή της νότιας Αφρικής (CORDEX-0.44), σε σχέση με τα Παγκόσμια Κλιματικά Μοντέλα από τα οποία λαμβάνουν πλευρικές οριακές συνθήκες (CMIP5). Επιπλέον, η υψηλότερη χωρική ανάλυση του συνόλου του σμήνους προσομοιώσεων CORDEX-Africa επιτρέπει την ακριβέστερη αναπαράσταση της τοπογραφίας, σε σύγκριση με αυτή που πραγματοποιείται από τα Παγκόσμια Κλιματικά Μοντέλα αδρής χωρικής ανάλυσης. Αυτό έχει ως αποτέλεσμα η εισροή υγρασίας στα χαμηλά ύψη της τροπόσφαιρας προερχόμενη από τον τροπικό Ινδικό Ωκεανό να εμποδίζεται ορθώς από τα βουνά στην περιοχή της Τανζανίας και να μην της επιτρέπεται να προχωρήσει προς την περιοχή της κεντρικής νότιας Αφρικής, όπως λανθασμένα συμβαίνει στο σμήνος προσομοιώσεων CMIP5. Σε όλους τους μήνες, και για τις διάφορες υποπεριοχές που εξετάζονται, τα Περιοχικά Κλιματικά Μοντέλα μειώνουν συστηματικά το σφάλμα της βροχόπτωσης, σε σχέση με τα Παγκόσμια Κλιματικά Μοντέλα που τα οδηγούν.
Τα πειράματα ευαισθησίας πραγματοποιήθηκαν χρησιμοποιώντας το μοντέλο WRF, εξετάζοντας την επίδραση του σχήματος παραμετροποίησης που ελέγχει τις διαδικασίες ανωμεταφοράς σε διάφορα χαρακτηριστικά που αφορούν τη βροχόπτωση στη νότια Αφρική. Οι προσομοιώσεις έδειξαν ότι η βροχόπτωση επηρεάζεται σημαντικά από το σχήμα παραμετροποίησης της ανωμεταφοράς και τα αποτελέσματα ήταν συνεπή ανεξάρτητα από την περίοδο μελέτης. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, τα σχήματα Betts - Miller - Janjic και New - Tiedtke παρήγαγαν τα πιο ρεαλιστικά αποτελέσματα (σε σύγκριση με τα χρησιμοποιούμενα δορυφορικά προϊόντα βροχόπτωσης και τα δεδομένα επανάλυσης ERA5) για ολόκληρη την περίοδο μελέτης. Το σχήμα Kain - Fritsch εμφάνισε συστηματική υπερεκτίμηση της βροχόπτωσης καθ' όλη την περίοδο μελέτης.


Πλήρες Κείμενο:

PDF

Αναφορές


Sabina Abba Omar and Babatunde J. Abiodun. 2017. How well do CORDEX models simulate extreme rainfall events over the East Coast of South Africa? Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 128(1):453–464.

Sabina Abba Omar and Babatunde J. Abiodun. 2021. Simulating the influence of topography on cutoff lows over Southern Africa. International Journal of Climatology, 41(S1):E2231–E2243. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/joc.6842.

Babatunde J. Abiodun, Nokwethaba Makhanya, Brilliant Petja, Abayomi A. Abatan, and Philip G. Oguntunde. 2019. Future projection of droughts over major river basins in Southern Africa at specific global warming levels. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 137(3):1785–1799.

Babatunde J. Abiodun, Tlakale O. Mogebisa, Brilliant Petja, Abayomi A. Abatan, and Takong R. Roland. 2020. Potential impacts of specific global warming levels on extreme rainfall events over southern Africa in CORDEX and NEX-GDDP ensembles. International Journal of Climatology, 40(6):3118–3141. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/joc.6386.

Adeyemi A. Adebiyi and Paquita Zuidema. 2016. The role of the southern African easterly jet in modifying the southeast Atlantic aerosol and cloud environments. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 142(697):1574–1589.

Robert F. Adler, Guojun Gu, and George J. Huffman. 2012. Estimating Climatological Bias Errors for the Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP). Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 51(1):84–99. Publisher: American Meteorological Society.

AFDB. 2019. Southern Africa Economic Outlook 2019. Technical report, African Development Bank.

Lisa V. Alexander, Margot Bador, Rémy Roca, Steefan Contractor, Markus G. Donat, and Phuong Loan Nguyen. 2020. Intercomparison of annual precipitation indices and extremes over global land areas from in situ, space-based and reanalysis products. Environmental Research Letters, 15(5):055002. Publisher: IOP Publishing.

Hamed Ashouri, Kuo-Lin Hsu, Soroosh Sorooshian, Dan K. Braithwaite, Kenneth R. Knapp, L. Dewayne Cecil, Brian R. Nelson, and Olivier P. Prat. 2015. PERSIANN-CDR: Daily Precipitation Climate Data Record from Multisatellite Observations for Hydrological and Climate Studies. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 96(1):69–83. Publisher: American Meteorological Society.

Getachew Tesfaye Ayehu, Tsegaye Tadesse, Berhan Gessesse, and Tufa Dinku. 2018. Validation of new satellite rainfall products over the Upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 11(4):1921–1936. Publisher: Copernicus GmbH.

Carlo Azzarri and Sara Signorelli. 2020. Climate and poverty in Africa South of the Sahara. World Development, 125:104691.

Nikolina Ban, Cecile Caillaud, Erika Coppola, Emanuela Pichelli, Stefan Sobolowski, Marianna Adinolfi, Bodo Ahrens, Antoinette Alias, Ivonne Anders, Sophie Bastin, Danijel Belusic, Segolene Berthou, Erwan Brisson, Rita M. Cardoso, Steven Chan, Ole Bossing Christensen, Jesus Fernandez, Lluis Fita, Thomas Frisius, Goran Gasparac, Filippo Giorgi, Klaus Goergen, Jan Erik Haugen, Oivind Hodnebrog, Stergios Kartsios, Eleni Katragkou, Elizabeth J. Kendon, Klaus Keuler, Alvaro Lavin-Gullon, Geert Lenderink, David Leutwyler, Torge Lorenz, Douglas Maraun, Paola Mercogliano, Josipa Milovac, Hans-Juergen Panitz, Mario Raffa, Armelle Reca Remedio, Christoph Schar, Pedro M.M Soares, Lidija Srnec, Birthe Marie Steensen, Paolo Stocchi, Merja H. Tolle, Heimo Truhetz, Jesus Vergara-Temprado, Hylke de Vries, Kirsten Warrach-Sagi, Volker Wulfmeyer, and Marjanne Zander. 2021. The first multi-model ensemble of regional climate simulations at the kilometer-scale resolution, Part I: Evaluation of precipitation.

Justin Bandoro, Susan Solomon, Aaron Donohoe, David W. J. Thompson, and Benjamin D. Santer. 2014. Influences of the Antarctic Ozone Hole on Southern Hemispheric Summer Climate Change. Journal of Climate, 27(16):6245–6264. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

Elizabeth A Barnes and James A Screen. 2015. The impact of Arctic warming on the midlatitude jet-stream: Can it? Has it? Will it? WIREs Climate Change, 6(3):277–286. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/wcc.337.

Elizabeth A. Barnes and Isla R. Simpson. 2017. Seasonal Sensitivity of the Northern Hemisphere Jet Streams to Arctic Temperatures on Subseasonal Time Scales. Journal of Climate, 30(24):10117–10137. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

Hylke E. Beck, Eric F. Wood, Ming Pan, Colby K. Fisher, Diego G. Miralles, Albert I. J. M. van Dijk, Tim R. McVicar, and Robert F. Adler. 2019. MSWEP V2 Global 3-Hourly 0.1° Precipitation: Methodology and Quantitative Assessment. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 100(3):473–500. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.

M. Bentsen, I. Bethke, J. B. Debernard, T. Iversen, A. Kirkevåg, Ø Seland, H. Drange, C. Roelandt, I. A. Seierstad, C. Hoose, and J. E. Kristjánsson. 2013. The Norwegian Earth System Model, NorESM1-M – Part 1: Description and basic evaluation of the physical climate. Geoscientific Model Development, 6(3):687–720. Publisher: Copernicus GmbH.

Fredrik Boberg and Jens H. Christensen. 2012. Overestimation of Mediterranean summer temperature projections due to model deficiencies. Nature Climate Change, 2(6):433–436. Number: 6 Publisher: Nature Publishing Group.

Stephan Bojinski, Michel Verstraete, Thomas C. Peterson, Carolin Richter, Adrian Simmons, and Michael Zemp. 2014. The Concept of Essential Climate Variables in Support of Climate Research, Applications, and Policy. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 95(9):1431–1443. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.

Mary-Jane M. Bopape, Hipolito Cardoso, Robert S. Plant, Elelwani Phaduli, Hector Chikoore, Thando Ndarana, Lino Khalau, and Edward Rakate. 2021. Sensitivity of Tropical Cyclone Idai Simulations to Cumulus Parametrization Schemes. Atmosphere, 12(8):932. Number: 8 Publisher: Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute.

Damien Boulard, Benjamin Pohl, Julien Crétat, Nicolas Vigaud, and Thanh Pham-Xuan. 2013. Downscaling large-scale climate variability using a regional climate model: the case of ENSO over Southern Africa. Climate Dynamics, 40(5):1141–1168.

G. E. P. Box. 1979. Robustness in the Strategy of Scientific Model Building. In ROBERT L. Launer and GRAHAM N. Wilkinson, editors, Robustness in Statistics, pages 201–236. Academic Press.

Noah D. Brenowitz, Tom Beucler, Michael Pritchard, and Christopher S. Bretherton. 2020. Interpreting and Stabilizing Machine-Learning Parametrizations of Convection. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 77(12):4357–4375. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences.

Noah D. Brenowitz and Christopher S. Bretherton. 2019. Spatially Extended Tests of a Neural Network Parametrization Trained by Coarse-Graining. Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems, 11(8):2728–2744. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2019MS001711.

Marisa Casale, Scott Drimie, Timothy Quinlan, and Gina Ziervogel. 2010. Understanding vulnerability in southern Africa: comparative findings using a multiple-stressor approach in South Africa and Malawi. Regional Environmental Change, 10(2):157–168.

CCCma. 2017. Environment and Climate Change Canada - Climate Change - CanESM2. Last Modified: 2017-05-31 Library Catalog: www.ec.gc.ca.

Matthew Chantry, Hannah Christensen, Peter Dueben, and Tim Palmer. 2021. Opportunities and challenges for machine learning in weather and climate modelling: hard, medium and soft AI. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 379(2194):20200083. Publisher: Royal Society.

Mingyue Chen, Wei Shi, Pingping Xie, Viviane B. S. Silva, Vernon E. Kousky, R. Wayne Higgins, and John E. Janowiak. 2008. Assessing objective techniques for gauge-based analyses of global daily precipitation. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 113(D4). _eprint: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2007JD009132.

Mingyue Chen, Pingping Xie, John E. Janowiak, and Phillip A. Arkin. 2002. Global Land Precipitation: A 50-yr Monthly Analysis Based on Gauge Observations. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 3(3):249–266. Publisher: American Meteorological Society.

Paul S. Chinowsky, Amy E. Schweikert, Niko L. Strzepek, and Ken Strzepek. 2015. Infrastructure and climate change: a study of impacts and adaptations in Malawi, Mozambique, and Zambia. Climatic Change, 130(1):49–62.

Ole B. Christensen and Erik Kjellström. 2020. Partitioning uncertainty components of mean climate and climate change in a large ensemble of European regional climate model projections. Climate Dynamics, 54(9):4293–4308.

Ole Bøssing Christensen, Martin Drews, Jens Hesselbjerg Christensen, Klaus Dethloff, Klaus Ketelsen, Ines Hebestadt, and Anette Rinke. 2007. The HIRHAM Regional Climate Model Version 5. Technical report 06-17, Danish Meteorological Institute, Copenhagen.

Kyle R. Clem, Ryan L. Fogt, John Turner, Benjamin R. Lintner, Gareth J. Marshall, James R. Miller, and James A. Renwick. 2020. Record warming at the South Pole during the past three decades. Nature Climate Change, 10(8):762–770. Number: 8 Publisher: Nature Publishing Group.

Judah Cohen, James A. Screen, Jason C. Furtado, Mathew Barlow, David Whittleston, Dim Coumou, Jennifer Francis, Klaus Dethloff, Dara Entekhabi, James Overland, and Justin Jones. 2014. Recent Arctic amplification and extreme mid-latitude weather. Nature Geoscience, 7(9):627–637. Number: 9 Publisher: Nature Publishing Group.

W. J. Collins, N. Bellouin, M. Doutriaux-Boucher, N. Gedney, P. Halloran, T. Hinton, J. Hughes, C. D. Jones, M. Joshi, S. Liddicoat, G. Martin, F. O’Connor, J. Rae, C. Senior, S. Sitch, I. Totterdell, A. Wiltshire, and S. Woodward. 2011. Development and evaluation of an Earth-System model – HadGEM2. Geoscientific Model Development, 4(4):1051–1075. Publisher: Copernicus GmbH.

Declan Conway, Emma Archer van Garderen, Delphine Deryng, Steve Dorling, Tobias Krueger, Willem Landman, Bruce Lankford, Karen Lebek, Tim Osborn, Claudia Ringler, James Thurlow, Tingju Zhu, and Carole Dalin. 2015. Climate and southern Africa’s water–energy–food nexus. Nature Climate Change, 5(9):837–846. Number: 9 Publisher: Nature Publishing Group.

Erika Coppola, Francesca Raffaele, Filippo Giorgi, Graziano Giuliani, Gao Xuejie, James M. Ciarlo, Taleena Rae Sines, José Abraham Torres-Alavez, Sushant Das, Fabio di Sante, Emanuela Pichelli, Russell Glazer, Sebastian Karl Müller, Sabina Abba Omar, Moetasim Ashfaq, Melissa Bukovsky, E.-S. Im, Daniela Jacob, Claas Teichmann, Armelle Remedio, Thomas Remke, Arne Kriegsmann, Katharina Bülow, Torsten Weber, Lars Buntemeyer, Kevin Sieck, and Diana Rechid. 2021. Climate hazard indices projections based on CORDEX-CORE, CMIP5 and CMIP6 ensemble. Climate Dynamics, 57(5):1293–1383.

COSMO. 2020. COSMO core documentation.

A. Creese and R. Washington. 2016. Using qflux to constrain modeled Congo Basin rainfall in the CMIP5 ensemble. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 121(22):13,415–13,442. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/2016JD025596.

Julien Crétat, Clémence Macron, Benjamin Pohl, and Yves Richard. 2011. Quantifying internal variability in a regional climate model: a case study for Southern Africa. Climate Dynamics, 37(7):1335–1356.

Julien Crétat, Benjamin Pohl, Bastien Dieppois, Ségolène Berthou, and Julien Pergaud. 2019. The Angola Low: relationship with southern African rainfall and ENSO. Climate Dynamics, 52(3):1783–1803.

Julien Crétat, Benjamin Pohl, Yves Richard, and Philippe Drobinski. 2012. Uncertainties in simulating regional climate of Southern Africa: sensitivity to physical parameterizations using WRF. Climate Dynamics, 38(3):613–634.

Joseph Daron, Laura Burgin, Tamara Janes, Richard G. Jones, and Christopher Jack. 2019. Climate process chains: Examples from southern Africa. International Journal of Climatology, 39(12):4784–4797. _eprint: https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/joc.6106.

Claire L. Davis and K. Vincent. 2017. Climate risk and vulnerability: A handbook for Southern Africa. CSIR. Accepted: 2018-02-26T13:08:32Z.

B. Denis, R. Laprise, and D. Caya. 2003. Sensitivity of a regional climate model to the resolution of the lateral boundary conditions. Climate Dynamics, 20(2-3):107–126.

Fabien Desbiolles, Emma Howard, Ross C. Blamey, Rondrotiana Barimalala, Neil C. G. Hart, and Chris J. C. Reason. 2020. Role of ocean mesoscale structures in shaping the Angola-Low pressure system and the southern Africa rainfall. Climate Dynamics, 54(7):3685–3704.

S. S. Dhomse, W. Feng, S. A. Montzka, R. Hossaini, J. Keeble, J. A. Pyle, J. S. Daniel, and M. P. Chipperfield. 2019. Delay in recovery of the Antarctic ozone hole from unexpected CFC-11 emissions. Nature Communications, 10(1):5781. Number: 1 Publisher: Nature Publishing Group.

Alejandro Di Luca, Ramón de Elía, and René Laprise. 2013. Potential for added value in temperature simulated by high-resolution nested RCMs in present climate and in the climate change signal. Climate Dynamics, 40(1):443–464.

Bastien Dieppois, Benjamin Pohl, Julien Crétat, Jonathan Eden, Moussa Sidibe, Mark New, Mathieu Rouault, and Damian Lawler. 2019. Southern African summer-rainfall variability, and its teleconnections, on interannual to interdecadal timescales in CMIP5 models. Climate Dynamics, 53(5):3505–3527.

Noah S. Diffenbaugh and Filippo Giorgi. 2012. Climate change hotspots in the CMIP5 global climate model ensemble. Climatic Change, 114(3):813–822.

Tufa Dinku, Chris Funk, Pete Peterson, Ross Maidment, Tsegaye Tadesse, Hussein Gadain, and Pietro Ceccato. 2018. Validation of the CHIRPS satellite rainfall estimates over eastern Africa. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 144(S1):292–312. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/qj.3244.

Alessandro Dosio, Richard G. Jones, Christopher Jack, Christopher Lennard, Grigory Nikulin, and Bruce Hewitson. 2019. What can we know about future precipitation in Africa? Robustness, significance and added value of projections from a large ensemble of regional climate models. Climate Dynamics, 53(9):5833–5858.

Alessandro Dosio, Martin W. Jury, Mansour Almazroui, Moetasim Ashfaq, Ismaila Diallo, Francois A. Engelbrecht, Nana A. B. Klutse, Christopher Lennard, Izidine Pinto, Mouhamadou B. Sylla, and Alain T. Tamoffo. 2021. Projected future daily characteristics of African precipitation based on global (CMIP5, CMIP6) and regional (CORDEX, CORDEX-CORE) climate models. Climate Dynamics, 57(11):3135–3158.

Alessandro Dosio and Hans-Jürgen Panitz. 2016. Climate change projections for CORDEX-Africa with COSMO-CLM regional climate model and differences with the driving global climate models. Climate Dynamics, 46(5):1599–1625.

Alessandro Dosio, Hans-Jürgen Panitz, Martina Schubert-Frisius, and Daniel Lüthi. 2015. Dynamical downscaling of CMIP5 global circulation models over CORDEX-Africa with COSMO-CLM: evaluation over the present climate and analysis of the added value. Climate Dynamics, 44(9):2637–2661.

Hongbo Duan, Gupeng Zhang, Shouyang Wang, and Ying Fan. 2019. Robust climate change research: a review on multi-model analysis. Environmental Research Letters, 14(3):033001. Publisher: IOP Publishing. J.-L. Dufresne, M.-A. Foujols, S. Denvil, A. Caubel, O. Marti, O. Aumont, Y. Balkanski, S. Bekki, H. Bellenger, R. Benshila, S. Bony, L. Bopp, P. Braconnot, P. Brockmann, P. Cadule, F. Cheruy, F. Codron, A. Cozic, D. Cugnet, N. de Noblet, J.-P. Duvel, C. Ethé, L. Fairhead, T. Fichefet, S. Flavoni, P. Friedlingstein, J.- Y. Grandpeix, L. Guez, E. Guilyardi, D. Hauglustaine, F. Hourdin, A. Idelkadi, J. Ghattas, S. Joussaume, M. Kageyama, G. Krinner, S. Labetoulle, A. Lahellec, M.-P. Lefebvre, F. Lefevre, C. Levy, Z. X. Li, J. Lloyd, F. Lott, G. Madec, M. Mancip, M. Marchand, S. Masson, Y. Meurdesoif, J. Mignot, I. Musat, S. Parouty, J. Polcher, C. Rio, M. Schulz, D. Swingedouw, S. Szopa, C. Talandier, P. Terray, N. Viovy, and N. Vuichard.

Climate change projections using the IPSL-CM5 Earth System Model: from CMIP3 to CMIP5. Climate Dynamics, 40(9):2123–2165.

John P. Dunne, Jasmin G. John, Alistair J. Adcroft, Stephen M. Griffies, Robert W. Hallberg, Elena Shevliakova, Ronald J. Stouffer, William Cooke, Krista A. Dunne, Matthew J. Harrison, John P. Krasting, Sergey L. Malyshev, P. C. D. Milly, Peter J. Phillipps, Lori T. Sentman, Bonita L. Samuels, Michael J. Spelman, Michael Winton, Andrew T. Wittenberg, and Niki Zadeh. 2012. GFDL’s ESM2 Global Coupled Climate–Carbon Earth System Models. Part I: Physical Formulation and Baseline Simulation Characteristics. Journal of Climate, 25(19):6646–6665. Publisher: American Meteorological Society.

Caroline M. Dunning, Emily Black, and Richard P. Allan. 2018. Later Wet Seasons with More Intense Rainfall over Africa under Future Climate Change. Journal of Climate, 31(23):9719–9738. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

M. Déqué, D. P. Rowell, D. Lüthi, F. Giorgi, J. H. Christensen, B. Rockel, D. Jacob, E. Kjellström, M. de Castro, and B. van den Hurk. 2007. An intercomparison of regional climate simulations for Europe: assessing uncertainties in model projections. Climatic Change, 81(1):53–70.

M. Déqué, S. Somot, E. Sanchez-Gomez, C. M. Goodess, D. Jacob, G. Lenderink, and O. B. Christensen. 2012. The spread amongst ENSEMBLES regional scenarios: regional climate models, driving general circulation models and interannual variability. Climate Dynamics, 38(5):951–964. Kerry Emanuel. 2020. The Relevance of Theory for Contemporary Research in Atmospheres, Oceans, and Climate. AGU Advances, 1(2):e2019AV000129. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2019AV000129.

Veronika Eyring, Sandrine Bony, Gerald A. Meehl, Catherine A. Senior, Bjorn Stevens, Ronald J. Stouffer, and Karl E. Taylor. 2016. Overview of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) experimental design and organization. Geoscientific Model Development, 9(5):1937–1958. Publisher: Copernicus GmbH.

Tom G. Farr, Paul A. Rosen, Edward Caro, Robert Crippen, Riley Duren, Scott Hensley, Michael Kobrick, Mimi Paller, Ernesto Rodriguez, Ladislav Roth, David Seal, Scott Shaffer, Joanne Shimada, Jeffrey Umland, Marian Werner, Michael Oskin, Douglas Burbank, and Douglas Alsdorf. 2007. The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission. Reviews of Geophysics, 45(2). _eprint: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2005RG000183.

Alice Favre, Nathalie Philippon, Benjamin Pohl, Evangelia-Anna Kalognomou, Christopher Lennard, Bruce Hewitson, Grigori Nikulin, Alessandro Dosio, Hans-Juergen Panitz, and Ruth Cerezo-Mota. 2016. Spatial distribution of precipitation annual cycles over South Africa in 10 CORDEX regional climate model present-day simulations. Climate Dynamics, 46(5):1799–1818.

Frauke Feser, Burkhardt Rockel, Hans von Storch, Jörg Winterfeldt, and Matthias Zahn. 2011. Regional Climate Models Add Value to Global Model Data: A Review and Selected Examples. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 92(9):1181–1192. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.

Jennifer M. Fitchett and Stefan W. Grab. 2014. A 66-year tropical cyclone record for south-east Africa: temporal trends in a global context. International Journal of Climatology, 34(13):3604–3615. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/joc.3932.

Chris Funk, Pete Peterson, Martin Landsfeld, Diego Pedreros, James Verdin, Shraddhanand Shukla, Gregory Husak, James Rowland, Laura Harrison, Andrew Hoell, and Joel Michaelsen. 2015. The climate hazards infrared precipitation with stations—a new environmental record for monitoring extremes. Scientific Data, 2(1):150066. Number: 1 Publisher: Nature Publishing Group.

David Gallego, Pedro Ribera, Ricardo Garcia-Herrera, Emiliano Hernandez, and Luis Gimeno. 2005. A new look for the Southern Hemisphere jet stream. Climate Dynamics, 24(6):607–621. Alessandra Giannini, Michela Biasutti, Isaac M. Held, and Adam H. Sobel. 2008. A global perspective on

African climate. Climatic Change, 90(4):359–383.

Nick van de Giesen, Rolf Hut, and John Selker. 2014. The Trans-African Hydro-Meteorological Observatory (TAHMO). WIREs Water, 1(4):341–348. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/wat2.1034.

Z. E. Gillett, H. H. Hendon, J. M. Arblaster, and E.-P. Lim. 2021. Tropical and Extratropical Influences on the Variability of the Southern Hemisphere Wintertime Subtropical Jet. Journal of Climate, 34(10):4009–4022. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

Marco A. Giorgetta, Johann Jungclaus, Christian H. Reick, Stephanie Legutke, Jürgen Bader, Michael Böttinger, Victor Brovkin, Traute Crueger, Monika Esch, Kerstin Fieg, Ksenia Glushak, Veronika Gayler, Helmuth Haak, Heinz-Dieter Hollweg, Tatiana Ilyina, Stefan Kinne, Luis Kornblueh, Daniela Matei,

Thorsten Mauritsen, Uwe Mikolajewicz, Wolfgang Mueller, Dirk Notz, Felix Pithan, Thomas Raddatz, Sebastian Rast, Rene Redler, Erich Roeckner, Hauke Schmidt, Reiner Schnur, Joachim Segschneider, Katharina D. Six, Martina Stockhause, Claudia Timmreck, Jörg Wegner, Heinrich Widmann, Karl-H. Wieners, Martin Claussen, Jochem Marotzke, and Bjorn Stevens. 2013. Climate and carbon cycle changes from 1850 to 2100 in MPI-ESM simulations for the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 5. Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems, 5(3):572–597. _eprint:

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/jame.20038.

Filippo Giorgi. 2019. Thirty Years of Regional Climate Modeling: Where Are We and Where Are We Going next? Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 124(11):5696–5723. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2018JD030094.

Filippo Giorgi, Erika Coppola, Francesca Raffaele, Gulilat Tefera Diro, Ramon Fuentes-Franco, Graziano Giuliani, Ashu Mamgain, Marta Pereira Llopart, Laura Mariotti, and Csaba Torma. 2014. Changes in extremes and hydroclimatic regimes in the CREMA ensemble projections. Climatic Change, 125(1):39–51.

Filippo Giorgi and William J. Gutowski. 2015. Regional Dynamical Downscaling and the CORDEX Initiative. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 40(1):467–490.

J. P. Goutorbe, T. Lebel, A. J. Dolman, J. H. C. Gash, P. Kabat, Y. H. Kerr, B. Monteny, S. D. Prince, J. N. M. Stricker, A. Tinga, and J. S. Wallace. 1997. An overview of HAPEX-Sahel: a study in climate and desertification. Journal of Hydrology, 188-189:4–17.

J.-P. Goutorbe, T. Lebel, A. Tinga, P. Bessemoulin, J. Brouwer, A. J. Dolman, E. T. Engman, J. H. C. Gash, M. Hoepffner, P. Kabat, Y. H. Kerr, B. Monteny, S. Prince, F. Said, P. Sellers, and J. S. Wallace. 1994. HAPEX-Sahel: a large-scale study of land-atmosphere interactions in the semi-arid tropics. Annales Geophysicae, 12(1):53–64. Publisher: Copernicus GmbH.

G. A. Grell and S. R. Freitas. 2014. A scale and aerosol aware stochastic convective parameterization for weather and air quality modeling. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 14(10):5233–5250. Publisher: Copernicus GmbH.

Guojun Gu and Chidong Zhang. 2002. Cloud components of the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 107(D21):ACL 4–1–ACL 4–12. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2002JD002089.

Reindert J. Haarsma, Malcolm J. Roberts, Pier Luigi Vidale, Catherine A. Senior, Alessio Bellucci, Qing Bao, Ping Chang, Susanna Corti, Neven S. Fučkar, Virginie Guemas, Jost von Hardenberg, Wilco Hazeleger, Chihiro Kodama, Torben Koenigk, L. Ruby Leung, Jian Lu, Jing-Jia Luo, Jiafu Mao, Matthew S. Mizielinski, Ryo Mizuta, Paulo Nobre, Masaki Satoh, Enrico Scoccimarro, Tido Semmler, Justin Small, and Jin-Song von Storch. 2016. High Resolution Model Intercomparison Project (High-ResMIP v1.0) for CMIP6. Geoscientific Model Development, 9(11):4185–4208. Publisher: Copernicus

GmbH.

I. Harris, P. D. Jones, T. J. Osborn, and D. H. Lister. 2014. Updated high-resolution grids of monthly climatic observations – the CRU TS3.10 Dataset. International Journal of Climatology, 34(3):623–642. _eprint: https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/joc.3711.

Laura Harrison, Chris Funk, and Pete Peterson. 2019. Identifying changing precipitation extremes in Sub-Saharan Africa with gauge and satellite products. Environmental Research Letters, 14(8):085007. Publisher: IOP Publishing.

N. C. G. Hart, C. J. C. Reason, and N. Fauchereau. 2010. Tropical–Extratropical Interactions over Southern Africa: Three Cases of Heavy Summer Season Rainfall. Monthly Weather Review, 138(7):2608–2623. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Monthly Weather Review.

Neil C. G. Hart, Chris J. C. Reason, and Nicolas Fauchereau. 2013. Cloud bands over southern Africa: seasonality, contribution to rainfall variability and modulation by the MJO. Climate Dynamics, 41(5):1199–

Neil C. G. Hart, Richard Washington, and Ross I. Maidment. 2019. Deep Convection over Africa: Annual Cycle, ENSO, and Trends in the Hotspots. Journal of Climate, 32(24):8791–8811. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

Adam T. Hartman. 2021. Tracking mesoscale convective systems in central equatorial Africa. International Journal of Climatology, 41(1):469–482. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/joc.6632.

Kerstin Hartung, Theodore G. Shepherd, Brian J. Hoskins, John Methven, and Gunilla Svensson. 2020. Diagnosing topographic forcing in an atmospheric dataset: The case of the North American Cordillera. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 146(726):314–326. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/qj.3677.

Wilco Hazeleger, Camiel Severijns, Tido Semmler, Simona Ştefănescu, Shuting Yang, Xueli Wang, Klaus Wyser, Emanuel Dutra, José M. Baldasano, Richard Bintanja, Philippe Bougeault, Rodrigo Caballero, Annica M. L. Ekman, Jens H. Christensen, Bart van den Hurk, Pedro Jimenez, Colin Jones, Per Kållberg, Torben Koenigk, Ray McGrath, Pedro Miranda, Twan van Noije, Tim Palmer, José A. Parodi, Torben Schmith, Frank Selten, Trude Storelvmo, Andreas Sterl, Honoré Tapamo, Martin Vancoppenolle, Pedro Viterbo, and Ulrika Willén. 2010. EC-EarthA Seamless Earth-System Prediction Approach in Action. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 91(10):1357–1364. Publisher: American Meteorological Society.

I. M. Held, H. Guo, A. Adcroft, J. P. Dunne, L. W. Horowitz, J. Krasting, E. Shevliakova, M. Winton, M. Zhao, M. Bushuk, A. T. Wittenberg, B. Wyman, B. Xiang, R. Zhang, W. Anderson, V. Balaji, L. Donner, K. Dunne, J. Durachta, P. P. G. Gauthier, P. Ginoux, J.-C. Golaz, S. M. Griffies, R. Hallberg, L. Harris, M. Harrison, W. Hurlin, J. John, P. Lin, S.-J. Lin, S. Malyshev, R. Menzel, P. C. D. Milly, Y. Ming, V. Naik, D. Paynter, F. Paulot, V. Rammaswamy, B. Reichl, T. Robinson, A. Rosati, C. Seman, L. G. Silvers, S. Underwood, and N. Zadeh. 2019. Structure and Performance of GFDL’s CM4.0 Climate Model. Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems, 11(11):3691–3727. _eprint: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2019MS001829.

Younggu Her, Seung-Hwan Yoo, Jaepil Cho, Syewoon Hwang, Jaehak Jeong, and Chounghyun Seong. 2019. Uncertainty in hydrological analysis of climate change: multi-parameter vs. multi-GCM ensemble predictions. Scientific Reports, 9(1):4974. Bandiera_abtest: a Cc_license_type: cc_by Cg_type: Nature Research Journals Number: 1 Primary_atype: Research Publisher: Nature Publishing Group Subject_term: Hydrology;Projection and prediction Subject_term_id: hydrology; projection and prediction.

Hans Hersbach, Bill Bell, Paul Berrisford, Shoji Hirahara, András Horányi, Joaquín MuñozSabater, Julien Nicolas, Carole Peubey, Raluca Radu, Dinand Schepers, Adrian Simmons, Cornel Soci, Saleh Abdalla, Xavier Abellan, Gianpaolo Balsamo, Peter Bechtold, Gionata Biavati, Jean Bidlot, Massimo Bonavita, Giovanna De Chiara, Per Dahlgren, Dick Dee, Michail Diamantakis, Rossana Dragani, Johannes Flemming, Richard Forbes, Manuel Fuentes, Alan Geer, Leo Haimberger, Sean Healy, Robin J. Hogan, Elías Hólm, Marta Janisková, Sarah Keeley, Patrick Laloyaux, Philippe Lopez, Cristina Lupu, Gabor Radnoti, Patricia de Rosnay, Iryna Rozum, Freja Vamborg, Sebastien Villaume, and Jean-Noël Thépaut. 2020.

The ERA5 global reanalysis. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 146(730):1999–2049. _eprint: https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/qj.3803.

Andrew Hoell, Andrea E. Gaughan, Tamuka Magadzire, and Laura Harrison. 2021. The Modulation of Daily Southern Africa Precipitation by El Niño–Southern Oscillation across the Summertime Wet Season. Journal of Climate, 34(3):1115–1134. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

James R. Holton. 2004. An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology. Academic Press. Google-Books-ID: fhW5oDv3EPsC.

Robert A. Houze Jr. 2012. Orographic effects on precipitating clouds. Reviews of Geophysics, 50(1). _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2011RG000365.

Emma Howard and Richard Washington. 2018. Characterizing the Synoptic Expression of the Angola Low. Journal of Climate, 31(17):7147–7165. Publisher: American Meteorological Society. Emma Howard and Richard Washington. 2019. Drylines in Southern Africa: Rediscovering the Congo Air Boundary. Journal of Climate, 32(23):8223–8242. Publisher: American Meteorological Society.

Michael J. Iacono, Jennifer S. Delamere, Eli J. Mlawer, Mark W. Shephard, Shepard A. Clough, and William D. Collins. 2008. Radiative forcing by long-lived greenhouse gases: Calculations with the AER radiative transfer models. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 113(D13). _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2008JD009944.

IPCC and T.F. Stocker. 2013. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Cambridge University Press.

Daniela Jacob, Alberto Elizalde, Andreas Haensler, Stefan Hagemann, Pankaj Kumar, Ralf Podzun, Diana Rechid, Armelle Reca Remedio, Fahad Saeed, Kevin Sieck, Claas Teichmann, and Christof Wilhelm. 2012. Assessing the Transferability of the Regional Climate Model REMO to Different Coordinated Regional Climate Downscaling EXperiment (CORDEX) Regions. Atmosphere, 3(1):181–199. Number: 1 Publisher: Molecular Diversity Preservation International.

Daniela Jacob, Claas Teichmann, Stefan Sobolowski, Eleni Katragkou, Ivonne Anders, Michal Belda, Rasmus Benestad, Fredrik Boberg, Erasmo Buonomo, Rita M. Cardoso, Ana Casanueva, Ole B. Christensen, Jens Hesselbjerg Christensen, Erika Coppola, Lesley De Cruz, Edouard L. Davin, Andreas Dobler, Marta Domínguez, Rowan Fealy, Jesus Fernandez, Miguel Angel Gaertner, Markel García- Díez, Filippo Giorgi, Andreas Gobiet, Klaus Goergen, Juan José Gómez-Navarro, Juan Jesús González Alemán, Claudia Gutiérrez, José M. Gutiérrez, Ivan Güttler, Andreas Haensler, Tomáš Halenka, Sonia Jerez, Pedro Jiménez-Guerrero, Richard G. Jones, Klaus Keuler, Erik Kjellström, Sebastian Knist, Sven Kotlarski, Douglas Maraun, Erik van Meijgaard, Paola Mercogliano, Juan Pedro Montávez, Antonio Navarra, Grigory Nikulin, Nathalie de Noblet-Ducoudré, Hans-Juergen Panitz, Susanne Pfeifer, Marie Piazza, Emanuela Pichelli, Joni-Pekka Pietikäinen, Andreas F. Prein, Swantje Preuschmann, Diana Rechid, Burkhardt Rockel, Raquel Romera, Enrique Sánchez, Kevin Sieck, Pedro M. M. Soares, Samuel Somot, Lidija Srnec, Silje Lund Sørland, Piet Termonia, Heimo Truhetz, Robert Vautard, Kirsten Warrach-Sagi, and Volker Wulfmeyer. 2020. Regional climate downscaling over Europe: perspectives from the EURO-CORDEX community. Regional Environmental Change, 20(2):51.

Zaviša I. Janjić. 1994. The Step-Mountain Eta Coordinate Model: Further Developments of the Convection, Viscous Sublayer, and Turbulence Closure Schemes. Monthly Weather Review, 122(5):927–945. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Monthly Weather Review.

John E. Janowiak. 1988. An Investigation of Interannual Rainfall Variability in Africa. Journal of Climate, 1(3):240–255. Publisher: American Meteorological Society.

Stephen Jeffrey, Leon D. Rotstayn, Mark Collier, Stacey Maree Dravitzki, Carlo Hamalainen, Chris Moeseneder, Kenneth Wong, and Jozef Syktus. 2013. Australia ’ s CMIP 5 submission using the CSIRO-Mk 3 . 6 model.

John S. Kain. 2004. The Kain–Fritsch Convective Parameterization: An Update. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 43(1):170–181. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology.

Evangelia-Anna Kalognomou, Christopher Lennard, Mxolisi Shongwe, Izidine Pinto, Alice Favre, Michael Kent, Bruce Hewitson, Alessandro Dosio, Grigory Nikulin, Hans-Jürgen Panitz, and Matthias Büchner. 2013. A Diagnostic Evaluation of Precipitation in CORDEX Models over Southern Africa. Journal of Climate, 26(23):9477–9506.

Alexey Yu Karpechko. 2020. International regulations have paused a jet-stream shift in the Southern Hemisphere. Nature, 579(7800):500–501. Bandiera_abtest: a Cg_type: News And Views Number: 7800 Publisher: Nature Publishing Group Subject_term: Atmospheric science, Climate sciences.

Maria Chara Karypidou, Eleni Katragkou, and Stefan Pieter Sobolowski. 2022a. Precipitation over southern Africa: is there consensus among global climate models (GCMs), regional climate models (RCMs) and observational data? Geoscientific Model Development, 15(8):3387–3404. Publisher: Copernicus GmbH.

Maria Chara Karypidou, Stefan Pieter Sobolowski, Eleni Katragkou, Lorenzo Sangelantoni, and Grigory Nikulin. 2022b. The impact of lateral boundary forcing in the CORDEX-Africa ensemble over southern Africa. Geoscientific Model Development Discussions, pages 1–36. Publisher: Copernicus GmbH.

William J. Keat, Thorwald H. M. Stein, Elelwani Phaduli, Stephanie Landman, Erik Becker, Mary-Jane M. Bopape, Kirsty E. Hanley, Humphrey W. Lean, and Stuart Webster. 2019. Convective initiation and storm life cycles in convection-permitting simulations of the Met Office Unified Model over South Africa. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 145(721):1323–1336. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/qj.3487.

M.G. Kendall. 1948. Rank correlation methods. Rank correlation methods. Griffin, Oxford, England. Christian Kerkhoff, Hans R. Künsch, and Christoph Schär. 2015. A Bayesian Hierarchical Model for Heterogeneous RCM–GCM Multimodel Ensembles. Journal of Climate, 28(15):6249–6266. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

J. Kim, Duane E. Waliser, Chris A. Mattmann, Cameron E. Goodale, Andrew F. Hart, Paul A. Zimdars, Daniel J. Crichton, Colin Jones, Grigory Nikulin, Bruce Hewitson, Chris Jack, Christopher Lennard, and Alice Favre. 2014. Evaluation of the CORDEX-Africa multi-RCM hindcast: systematic model errors. Climate Dynamics, 42(5):1189–1202.

Yeon-Hee Kim, Seung-Ki Min, Xuebin Zhang, Jana Sillmann, and Marit Sandstad. 2020. Evaluation of the CMIP6 multi-model ensemble for climate extreme indices. Weather and Climate Extremes, 29:100269.

Peter Knippertz, Hugh Coe, J. Christine Chiu, Mat J. Evans, Andreas H. Fink, Norbert Kalthoff, Catherine Liousse, Celine Mari, Richard P. Allan, Barbara Brooks, Sylvester Danour, Cyrille Flamant, Oluwagbemiga O. Jegede, Fabienne Lohou, and John H. Marsham. 2015. The DACCIWA Project: Dynamics–Aerosol–Chemistry–Cloud Interactions in West Africa. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 96(9):1451–1460. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.

Shunya Koseki and Teferi Demissie. 2018. Does the Drakensberg dehydrate southwestern Africa? Journal of Arid Environments, 158:35–42.

Shunya Koseki and Priscilla A. Mooney. 2019. Influences of Lake Malawi on the spatial and diurnal variability of local precipitation. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 23(7):2795–2812. Publisher: Copernicus GmbH.

Giresse Kuete, Wilfried Pokam Mba, and Richard Washington. 2020. African Easterly Jet South: control, maintenance mechanisms and link with Southern subtropical waves. Climate Dynamics, 54(3):1539–1552.

Nothemba Kula, Andy Haines, and Robert Fryatt. 2013. Reducing Vulnerability to Climate Change in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Need for Better Evidence. PLoS Medicine, 10(1).

Paul J. Kushner, Isaac M. Held, and Thomas L. Delworth. 2001. Southern Hemisphere Atmospheric Circulation Response to Global Warming. Journal of Climate, 14(10):2238–2249. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

T. Lamont, M. García-Reyes, S. J. Bograd, C. D. van der Lingen, and W. J. Sydeman. 2018. Upwelling indices for comparative ecosystem studies: Variability in the Benguela Upwelling System. Journal of Marine Systems, 188:3–16.

R. Laprise, R. de Elía, D. Caya, S. Biner, P. Lucas-Picher, E. Diaconescu, M. Leduc, A. Alexandru, L. Separovic, and Canadian Network for Regional Climate Modelling and Diagnostics. 2008. Challenging some tenets of Regional Climate Modelling. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 100(1):3–22.

Melissa J. Lazenby, Martin C. Todd, and Yi Wang. 2016. Climate model simulation of the South Indian Ocean Convergence Zone: mean state and variability. Climate Research, 68(1):59–71.

Camille Le Coz and Nick van de Giesen. 2020. Comparison of Rainfall Products over Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 21(4):553–596. Publisher: American Meteorological Society.

Simon H. Lee, Paul D. Williams, and Thomas H. A. Frame. 2019. Increased shear in the North Atlantic upper-level jet stream over the past four decades. Nature, 572(7771):639–642. Number: 7771 Publisher: Nature Publishing Group.

Camille Li and Justin J. Wettstein. 2012. Thermally Driven and Eddy-Driven Jet Variability in Reanalysis. Journal of Climate, 25(5):1587–1596. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

Daniela C. A. Lima, Pedro M. M. Soares, Alvaro Semedo, Rita M. Cardoso, William Cabos, and Dmitry V. Sein. 2019. How Will a Warming Climate Affect the Benguela Coastal Low- Level Wind Jet? Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 124(9):5010–5028. _eprint: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2018JD029574.

Elisabeth A. Lloyd, Melissa Bukovsky, and Linda O. Mearns. 2020. An analysis of the disagreement about added value by regional climate models. Synthese.

Christof Lorenz and Harald Kunstmann. 2012. The Hydrological Cycle in Three State-of-the-Art Reanalyses: Intercomparison and Performance Analysis. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 13(5):1397–1420. Publisher: American Meteorological Society.

Yibo Luan, Xuefeng Cui, and Marion Ferrat. 2013. Historical trends of food self-sufficiency in Africa. Food Security, 5(3):393–405.

Alejandro Di Luca, Daniel Argüeso, Jason P. Evans, Ramón de Elía, and René Laprise. 2016. Quantifying the overall added value of dynamical downscaling and the contribution from different spatial scales. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 121(4):1575–1590. _eprint: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/2015JD024009.

Bradfield Lyon and Simon J. Mason. 2007. The 1997–98 Summer Rainfall Season in Southern Africa. Part I: Observations. Journal of Climate, 20(20):5134–5148.

Bradfield Lyon and Simon J. Mason. 2009. The 1997/98 Summer Rainfall Season in Southern Africa. Part II: Model Simulations and Coupled Model Forecasts. Journal of Climate, 22(13):3802–3818.

Michelle L. L’Heureux, Sukyoung Lee, and Bradfield Lyon. 2013. Recent multidecadal strengthening of the Walker circulation across the tropical Pacific. Nature Climate Change, 3(6):571–576. Number: 6 Publisher: Nature Publishing Group.

Tafadzwanashe Mabhaudhi, Sylvester Mpandeli, Luxon Nhamo, Vimbayi G. P. Chimonyo, Charles Nhemachena, Aidan Senzanje, Dhesigen Naidoo, and Albert T. Modi. 2018. Prospects for Improving Irrigated Agriculture in Southern Africa: Linking Water, Energy and Food. Water, 10(12):1881. Number: 12 Publisher: Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute.

Clémence Macron, Benjamin Pohl, Yves Richard, and Miloud Bessafi. 2014. How do Tropical Temperate Troughs Form and Develop over Southern Africa? Journal of Climate, 27(4):1633–1647. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

Penelope Maher, Michael E. Kelleher, Philip G. Sansom, and John Methven. 2020. Is the subtropical jet shifting poleward? Climate Dynamics, 54(3):1741–1759.

Ross I. Maidment, Richard P. Allan, and Emily Black. 2015. Recent observed and simulated changes in precipitation over Africa. Geophysical Research Letters, 42(19):8155–8164. _eprint: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/2015GL065765.

Ross I. Maidment, David Grimes, Richard P. Allan, Elena Tarnavsky, Marc Stringer, Tim Hewison, Rob Roebeling, and Emily Black. 2014. The 30 year TAMSAT African Rainfall Climatology And Time series (TARCAT) data set. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 119(18):10,619–10,644. _eprint: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/2014JD021927.

Desmond Manatsa, Yushi Morioka, Swadhin K. Behera, Toshi Yamagata, and Caxton H. Matarira. 2013. Link between Antarctic ozone depletion and summer warming over southern Africa. Nature Geoscience, 6(11):934–939.

A. J. Manhique, C. J. C. Reason, L. Rydberg, and N. Fauchereau. 2011. ENSO and Indian Ocean sea surface temperatures and their relationships with tropical temperate troughs over Mozambique and the Southwest Indian Ocean. International Journal of Climatology, 31(1):1–13.

Henry B. Mann. 1945. Nonparametric Tests Against Trend. Econometrica, 13(3):245–259. Publisher: [Wiley, Econometric Society].

Gloria L. Manney and Michaela I. Hegglin. 2018. Seasonal and Regional Variations of Long-Term Changes in Upper-Tropospheric Jets from Reanalyses. Journal of Climate, 31(1):423–448. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

Tshepo S. Masipa. 2017. The impact of climate change on food security in South Africa: Current realities and challenges ahead. Jàmbá : Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 9(1).

François Massonnet, Martin Ménégoz, Mario Acosta, Xavier Yepes-Arbós, Eleftheria Exarchou, and Francisco J. Doblas-Reyes. 2020. Replicability of the EC-Earth3 Earth system model under a change in computing environment. Geoscientific Model Development, 13(3):1165–1178. Publisher: Copernicus GmbH.

Thorsten Mauritsen, Jürgen Bader, Tobias Becker, Jörg Behrens, Matthias Bittner, Renate Brokopf, Victor Brovkin, Martin Claussen, Traute Crueger, Monika Esch, Irina Fast, Stephanie Fiedler, Dagmar Fläschner, Veronika Gayler, Marco Giorgetta, Daniel S. Goll, Helmuth Haak, Stefan Hagemann, Christopher Hedemann, Cathy Hohenegger, Tatiana Ilyina, Thomas Jahns, Diego JimenézdelaCuesta, Johann Jungclaus, Thomas Kleinen, Silvia Kloster, Daniela Kracher, Stefan Kinne, Deike Kleberg, Gitta Lasslop, Luis Kornblueh, Jochem Marotzke, Daniela Matei, Katharina Meraner, Uwe Mikolajewicz, Kameswarrao Modali, Benjamin Möbis, Wolfgang A. Müller, Julia E. M. S. Nabel, Christine C. W. Nam,

Dirk Notz, Sarah-Sylvia Nyawira, Hanna Paulsen, Karsten Peters, Robert Pincus, Holger Pohlmann, Julia Pongratz, Max Popp, Thomas Jürgen Raddatz, Sebastian Rast, Rene Redler, Christian H. Reick, Tim Rohrschneider, Vera Schemann, Hauke Schmidt, Reiner Schnur, Uwe Schulzweida, Katharina D. Six, Lukas Stein, Irene Stemmler, Bjorn Stevens, Jin-Song von Storch, Fangxing Tian, Aiko Voigt, Philipp Vrese, Karl-Hermann Wieners, Stiig Wilkenskjeld, Alexander Winkler, and Erich Roeckner. 2019. Developments in the MPI-M Earth System Model version 1.2 (MPI-ESM1.2) and Its Response to Increasing CO2. Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems, 11(4):998–1038. _eprint: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2018MS001400.

A. F. Mavume, L. Rydberg, M. Rouault, and J. R. E. Lutjeharms. 2009. Climatology and Landfall of Tropical Cyclones in the South- West Indian Ocean. Western Indian Ocean Journal of Marine Science, 8(1).

Number: 1.

G. Maúre, I. Pinto, M. Ndebele-Murisa, M. Muthige, C. Lennard, G. Nikulin, A. Dosio, and A. Meque. 2018. The southern African climate under 1.5hspace0.167em°C and 2hspace0.167em°C of global warming as simulated by CORDEX regional climate models. Environmental Research Letters, 13(6):065002. Publisher: IOP Publishing.

Arlindo Meque and Babatunde J. Abiodun. 2015. Simulating the link between ENSO and summer drought in Southern Africa using regional climate models. Climate Dynamics, 44(7):1881–1900.

Agostino N. Meroni, Kizito A. Oundo, Richard Muita, Mary-Jane Bopape, Thizwilondi R. Maisha, Martina Lagasio, Antonio Parodi, and Giovanna Venuti. 2021. Sensitivity of some African heavy rainfall events to microphysics and planetary boundary layer schemes: Impacts on localized storms. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 147(737):2448–2468. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/qj.4033.

Alison Misselhorn and Sheryl L. Hendriks. 2017. A systematic review of sub-national food insecurity research in South Africa: Missed opportunities for policy insights. PLOS ONE, 12(8):e0182399. Publisher: Public Library of Science.

Ditiro B. Moalafhi, Jason P. Evans, and Ashish Sharma. 2017a. Influence of reanalysis datasets on dynamically downscaling the recent past. Climate Dynamics, 49(4):1239–1255.

Ditiro Benson Moalafhi, Ashish Sharma, Jason Peter Evans, Rajeshwar Mehrotra, and Eytan Rocheta. 2017b. Impact of bias-corrected reanalysis-derived lateral boundary conditions on WRF simulations. Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems, 9(4):1828–1846. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/2017MS001003.

Patience T. Mulovhedzi, Gift T. Rambuwani, Mary-Jane Bopape, Robert Maisha, and Nkwe Monama. 2021. Model inter-comparison for short-range forecasts over the southern African domain. South African Journal of Science, 117(9/10). Number: 9/10.

C. Munday and R. Washington. 2018. Systematic Climate Model Rainfall Biases over Southern Africa: Links to Moisture Circulation and Topography. Journal of Climate, 31(18):7533–7548. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

Callum Munday and Richard Washington. 2017. Circulation controls on southern African precipitation in coupled models: The role of the Angola Low. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 122(2):861–877.

M. S. Muthige, J. Malherbe, F. A. Englebrecht, S. Grab, A. Beraki, T. R. Maisha, and J. Van der Merwe. 2018. Projected changes in tropical cyclones over the South West Indian Ocean under different extents of global warming. Environmental Research Letters, 13(6):065019. Publisher: IOP Publishing.

Hisashi Nakamura and Akihiko Shimpo. 2004. Seasonal Variations in the Southern Hemisphere Storm Tracks and Jet Streams as Revealed in a Reanalysis Dataset. Journal of Climate, 17(9):1828–1844. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

Mikio Nakanishi and Hiroshi Niino. 2006. An Improved Mellor–Yamada Level-3 Model: Its Numerical Stability and Application to a Regional Prediction of Advection Fog. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 119(2):397–407.

David J. Nash, Kathleen Pribyl, Jørgen Klein, Georgina H. Endfield, Dominic R. Kniveton, and George C. D. Adamson. 2015. Tropical cyclone activity over Madagascar during the late nineteenth century. International Journal of Climatology, 35(11):3249–3261. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/joc.4204.

S. E. Nicholson, D. Klotter, and G. Chavula. 2014. A detailed rainfall climatology for Malawi, Southern Africa. International Journal of Climatology, 34(2):315–325.

Sharon E. Nicholson. 2009. A revised picture of the structure of the “monsoon” and land ITCZ over West Africa. Climate Dynamics, 32(7):1155–1171.

Sharon E. Nicholson. 2018. The ITCZ and the Seasonal Cycle over Equatorial Africa. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 99(2):337–348. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.

Sharon E. Nicholson and Jeremy P. Grist. 2003. The Seasonal Evolution of the Atmospheric Circulation over West Africa and Equatorial Africa. Journal of Climate, 16(7):1013–1030. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

Ji Nie, William R. Boos, and Zhiming Kuang. 2010. Observational Evaluation of a Convective Quasi-Equilibrium View of Monsoons. Journal of Climate, 23(16):4416–4428. Publisher: American Meteorological

Society Section: Journal of Climate.

Grigory Nikulin, Colin Jones, Filippo Giorgi, Ghassem Asrar, Matthias Büchner, Ruth Cerezo-Mota, Ole Bøssing Christensen, Michel Déqué, Jesus Fernandez, Andreas Hänsler, Erik van Meijgaard, Patrick Samuelsson, Mouhamadou Bamba Sylla, and Laxmi Sushama. 2012. Precipitation Climatology in an Ensemble of CORDEX-Africa Regional Climate Simulations. Journal of Climate, 25(18):6057–6078. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

Guo-Yue Niu, Zong-Liang Yang, Kenneth E. Mitchell, Fei Chen, Michael B. Ek, Michael Barlage, Anil Kumar, Kevin Manning, Dev Niyogi, Enrique Rosero, Mukul Tewari, and Youlong Xia. 2011. The community Noah land surface model with multiparameterization options (Noah-MP): 1. Model description and evaluation with local-scale measurements. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 116(D12). _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2010JD015139.

Arielle Stela Nkwinkwa Njouodo, Shunya Koseki, Noel Keenlyside, and Mathieu Rouault. 2018. Atmospheric Signature of the Agulhas Current. Geophysical Research Letters, 45(10):5185–5193. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2018GL077042.

Nicholas S. Novella and Wassila M. Thiaw. 2013. African Rainfall Climatology Version 2 for Famine Early Warning Systems. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 52(3):588–606. Publisher: American Meteorological Society.

Paul A. O’Gorman and John G. Dwyer. 2018. Using Machine Learning to Parameterize Moist Convection: Potential for Modeling of Climate, Climate Change, and Extreme Events. Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems, 10(10):2548–2563. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2018MS001351.

Charles Onyutha. 2018. Trends and variability in African long-term precipitation. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment, 32(9):2721–2739.

D. J. Parker, R. R. Burton, A. Diongue-Niang, R. J. Ellis, M. Felton, C. M. Taylor, C. D. Thorncroft, P. Bessemoulin, and A. M. Tompkins. 2005. The diurnal cycle of the West African monsoon circulation. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 131(611):2839–2860. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1256/qj.04.52.

K. J. Pearson, G. M. S. Lister, C. E. Birch, R. P. Allan, R. J. Hogan, and S. J. Woolnough. 2014. Modelling the diurnal cycle of tropical convection across the ‘grey zone’. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 140(679):491–499. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/qj.2145.

Cristina Pena-Ortiz, David Gallego, Pedro Ribera, Paulina Ordonez, and Maria Del Carmen Alvarez-Castro. 2013. Observed trends in the global jet stream characteristics during the second half of the 20th century. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 118(7):2702–2713. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/jgrd.50305.

Thomas C. Peterson and Michael J. Manton. 2008. Monitoring Changes in Climate Extremes: A Tale of International Collaboration. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 89(9):1266–1271. Publisher: American Meteorological Society.

Emanuela Pichelli, Erika Coppola, Stefan Sobolowski, Nikolina Ban, Filippo Giorgi, Paolo Stocchi, Antoinette Alias, Danijel Belušić, Segolene Berthou, Cecile Caillaud, Rita M. Cardoso, Steven Chan, Ole Bøssing Christensen, Andreas Dobler, Hylke de Vries, Klaus Goergen, Elizabeth J. Kendon, Klaus Keuler, Geert Lenderink, Torge Lorenz, Aditya N. Mishra, Hans-Juergen Panitz, Christoph Schär, Pedro M. M. Soares, Heimo Truhetz, and Jesus Vergara-Temprado. 2021. The first multi-model ensemble of regional climate simulations at kilometer-scale resolution part 2: historical and future simulations of precipitation. Climate Dynamics.

David W. Pierce, Tim P. Barnett, Benjamin D. Santer, and Peter J. Gleckler. 2009. Selecting global climate models for regional climate change studies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(21):8441–8446. Publisher: National Academy of Sciences Section: Physical Sciences.

Izidine Pinto, Chris Jack, and Bruce Hewitson. 2018. Process-based model evaluation and projections over southern Africa from Coordinated Regional Climate Downscaling Experiment and Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 models. International Journal of Climatology, 38(11):4251–4261. _eprint: https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/joc.5666.

Izidine Pinto, Christopher Lennard, Mark Tadross, Bruce Hewitson, Alessandro Dosio, Grigory Nikulin, Hans-Juergen Panitz, and Mxolisi E. Shongwe. 2016. Evaluation and projections of extreme precipitation over southern Africa from two CORDEX models. Climatic Change, 135(3):655–668.

Benjamin Pohl, Mathieu Rouault, and Shouraseni Sen Roy. 2014. Simulation of the annual and diurnal cycles of rainfall over South Africa by a regional climate model. Climate Dynamics, 43(7):2207–2226. Alexander Polonsky and Anton Torbinsky. 2021. The IOD–ENSO Interaction: The Role of the Indian Ocean Current’s System. Atmosphere, 12(12):1662. Number: 12 Publisher: Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute.

Catherine Pomposi, Chris Funk, Shraddhanand Shukla, Laura Harrison, and Tamuka Magadzire. 2018. Distinguishing southern Africa precipitation response by strength of El Niño events and implications for decision-making. Environmental Research Letters, 13(7):074015. Michael Previdi, Karen L. Smith, and Lorenzo M. Polvani. 2021. Arctic amplification of climate change: a review of underlying mechanisms. Environmental Research Letters, 16(9):093003. Publisher: IOP Publishing.

Komaragiri Srinivasa Raju and Dasika Nagesh Kumar. 2020. Review of approaches for selection and ensembling of GCMs. Journal of Water and Climate Change, 11(3):577–599.

Hamish Ramsay. 2017. The Global Climatology of Tropical Cyclones. ISBN: 9780199389407. Arun Rana, Grigory Nikulin, Erik Kjellström, Gustav Strandberg, Marco Kupiainen, Ulf Hansson, and Michael Kolax. 2020. Contrasting regional and global climate simulations over South Asia. Climate Dynamics, 54(5):2883–2901.

Mika Rantanen, Alexey Yu Karpechko, Antti Lipponen, Kalle Nordling, Otto Hyvärinen, Kimmo Ruosteenoja, Timo Vihma, and Ari Laaksonen. 2022. The Arctic has warmed nearly four times faster than the globe since 1979. Communications Earth & Environment, 3(1):1–10. Number: 1 Publisher: Nature Publishing Group.

R. S. Rapolaki, R. C. Blamey, J. C. Hermes, and C. J. C. Reason. 2021. Moisture sources and transport during an extreme rainfall event over the Limpopo River Basin, southern Africa. Atmospheric Research, 264:105849.

Ramontsheng S. Rapolaki, Ross C. Blamey, Juliet C. Hermes, and Chris J. C. Reason. 2019. A classification of synoptic weather patterns linked to extreme rainfall over the Limpopo River Basin in southern Africa. Climate Dynamics, 53(3):2265–2279.

Satyaban B. Ratna, Swadhin Behera, J. Venkata Ratnam, Keiko Takahashi, and Toshio Yamagata. 2013. An index for tropical temperate troughs over southern Africa. Climate Dynamics, 41(2):421–441.

J. V. Ratnam, S. K. Behera, Y. Masumoto, K. Takahashi, and T. Yamagata. 2012. A simple regional coupled model experiment for summer-time climate simulation over southern Africa. Climate Dynamics, 39(9):2207–2217.

J. V. Ratnam, S. K. Behera, S. B. Ratna, C. J. de W. Rautenbach, C. Lennard, J.-J. Luo, Y. Masumoto, K. Takahashi, and T. Yamagata. 2013. Dynamical Downscaling of Austral Summer Climate Forecasts over Southern Africa Using a Regional Coupled Model. Journal of Climate, 26(16):6015–6032. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

C. J. C. Reason. 2001. Subtropical Indian Ocean SST dipole events and southern African rainfall. Geophysical Research Letters, 28(11):2225–2227. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2000GL012735.

C. J. C. Reason and D. Jagadheesha. 2005. A model investigation of recent ENSO impacts over southern Africa. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 89(1):181–205.

Michelle Simões Reboita, Tércio Ambrizzi, Bruna Andrelina Silva, Raniele Fátima Pinheiro, and Rosmeri Porfírio da Rocha. 2019. The South Atlantic Subtropical Anticyclone: Present and Future Climate. Frontiers in Earth Science, 0. Publisher: Frontiers.

Jean-Luc Redelsperger, Chris D. Thorncroft, Arona Diedhiou, Thierry Lebel, Douglas J. Parker, and Jan Polcher. 2006. African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis: An International Research Project and Field Campaign. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 87(12):1739–1746. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society.

Gwendal Rivière. 2011. A Dynamical Interpretation of the Poleward Shift of the Jet Streams in Global Warming Scenarios. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 68(6):1253–1272. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences.

Joacim Rocklöv and Robert Dubrow. 2020. Climate change: an enduring challenge for vector-borne disease prevention and control. Nature Immunology, 21(5):479–483. Number: 5 Publisher: Nature Publishing Group.

L. D. Rotstayn, M. A. Collier, S. J. Jeffrey, J. Kidston, J. I. Syktus, and K. K. Wong. 2013. Anthropogenic effects on the subtropical jet in the Southern Hemisphere: aerosols versus long-lived greenhouse gases. Environmental Research Letters, 8(1):014030. Publisher: IOP Publishing.

Markku Rummukainen. 2016. Added value in regional climate modeling. WIREs Climate Change, 7(1):145–

_eprint: https://wires.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/wcc.378.

C. L. Ryder, E. J. Highwood, P. D. Rosenberg, J. Trembath, J. K. Brooke, M. Bart, A. Dean, J. Crosier, J. Dorsey, H. Brindley, J. Banks, J. H. Marsham, J. B. McQuaid, H. Sodemann, and R. Washington. 2013. Optical properties of Saharan dust aerosol and contribution from the coarse mode as measured during the Fennec 2011 aircraft campaign. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 13(1):303–325. Publisher: Copernicus GmbH.

C. L. Ryder, J. B. McQuaid, C. Flamant, P. D. Rosenberg, R. Washington, H. E. Brindley, E. J. Highwood, J. H. Marsham, D. J. Parker, M. C. Todd, J. R. Banks, J. K. Brooke, S. Engelstaedter, V. Estelles, P. Formenti, L. Garcia-Carreras, C. Kocha, F. Marenco, H. Sodemann, C. J. T. Allen, A. Bourdon, M. Bart, C. Cavazos-Guerra, S. Chevaillier, J. Crosier, E. Darbyshire, A. R. Dean, J. R. Dorsey, J. Kent, D. O’Sullivan, K. Schepanski, K. Szpek, J. Trembath, and A. Woolley. 2015. Advances in understanding mineral dust and boundary layer processes over the Sahara from Fennec aircraft observations. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 15(14):8479–8520. Publisher: Copernicus GmbH.

Ju-Mee Ryoo, Leonhard Pfister, Rei Ueyama, Paquita Zuidema, Robert Wood, Ian Chang, and Jens Redemann. 2021. A meteorological overview of the ORACLES (ObseRvations of Aerosols above Clouds and their intEractionS) campaign over the southeastern Atlantic during 2016–2018: Part 1 – Climatology. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 21(22):16689–16707. Publisher: Copernicus GmbH.

Patrick Samuelsson, Stefan Gollvik, Christer Jansson, Marco Kupiainen, Ekaterina Kourzeneva, and Willem Jan van de Berg. 2015. The surface processes of the Rossby Centre regional atmospheric climate model (RCA4).

Nazmus Sazib, lliana E. Mladenova, and John D. Bolten. 2020. Assessing the Impact of ENSO on Agriculture Over Africa Using Earth Observation Data. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 4.

Udo Schneider, Andreas Becker, Peter Finger, Anja Meyer-Christoffer, Bruno Rudolf, and Markus Ziese. 2015. GPCC Full Data Reanalysis Version 7.0 at 0.5°: Monthly Land-Surface Precipitation from Rain-Gauges built on GTS-based and Historic Data.

J. F. Scinocca, V. V. Kharin, Y. Jiao, M. W. Qian, M. Lazare, L. Solheim, G. M. Flato, S. Biner, M. Desgagne, and B. Dugas. 2016. Coordinated Global and Regional Climate Modeling. Journal of Climate, 29(1):17–35. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

Øyvind Seland, Mats Bentsen, Dirk Olivié, Thomas Toniazzo, Ada Gjermundsen, Lise Seland Graff, Jens Boldingh Debernard, Alok Kumar Gupta, Yan-Chun He, Alf Kirkevåg, Jörg Schwinger, Jerry Tjiputra, Kjetil Schanke Aas, Ingo Bethke, Yuanchao Fan, Jan Griesfeller, Alf Grini, Chuncheng Guo, Mehmet Ilicak, Inger Helene Hafsahl Karset, Oskar Landgren, Johan Liakka, Kine Onsum Moseid, Aleksi Nummelin, Clemens Spensberger, Hui Tang, Zhongshi Zhang, Christoph Heinze, Trond Iversen, and Michael Schulz. 2020. Overview of the Norwegian Earth System Model (NorESM2) and key climate response of CMIP6 DECK, historical, and scenario simulations. Geoscientific Model Development, 13(12):6165–6200. Publisher: Copernicus GmbH.

Pranab Kumar Sen. 1968. Estimates of the Regression Coefficient Based on Kendall’s Tau. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 63(324):1379–1389. Publisher: Taylor & Francis _eprint: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01621459.1968.10480934.

Olivia Serdeczny, Sophie Adams, Florent Baarsch, Dim Coumou, Alexander Robinson, William Hare, Michiel Schaeffer, Mahé Perrette, and Julia Reinhardt. 2017. Climate change impacts in Sub-Saharan Africa: from physical changes to their social repercussions. Regional Environmental Change, 17(6):1585–1600.

Aaron M. Shew, Jesse B. Tack, Lawton L. Nalley, and Petronella Chaminuka. 2020. Yield reduction under climate warming varies among wheat cultivars in South Africa. Nature Communications, 11(1):4408. Number: 1 Publisher: Nature Publishing Group.

Mxolisi E. Shongwe, Chris Lennard, Brant Liebmann, Evangelia-Anna Kalognomou, Lucky Ntsangwane, and Izidine Pinto. 2014. An evaluation of CORDEX regional climate models in simulating precipitation over Southern Africa. Atmospheric Science Letters, 16(3):199–207.

J. Sillmann, V. V. Kharin, F. W. Zwiers, X. Zhang, and D. Bronaugh. 2013. Climate extremes indices in the CMIP5 multimodel ensemble: Part 2. Future climate projections. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 118(6):2473–2493. _eprint: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/jgrd.50188.

W. C. Skamarock, J. B. Klemp, J. Dudhia, D. O. Gill, Z. Liu, J. Berner, and X. Huang. 2021. A Description of the Advanced Research WRF Model Version 4.3. ((No. NCAR/TN-556+STR)).

Paul W. Staten, Jian Lu, Kevin M. Grise, Sean M. Davis, and Thomas Birner. 2018. Re-examining tropical expansion. Nature Climate Change, 8(9):768–775. Number: 9 Publisher: Nature Publishing Group. T. H. M. Stein, W. Keat, R. I. Maidment, S. Landman, E. Becker, D. F. A. Boyd, A. Bodas-Salcedo, G. Pankiewicz, and S. Webster. 2019. An Evaluation of Clouds and Precipitation in Convection- Permitting Forecasts for South Africa. Weather and Forecasting, 34(1):233–254. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Weather and Forecasting.

A. K. Steiner, F. Ladstädter, W. J. Randel, A. C. Maycock, Q. Fu, C. Claud, H. Gleisner, L. Haimberger, S.-P. Ho, P. Keckhut, T. Leblanc, C. Mears, L. M. Polvani, B. D. Santer, T. Schmidt, V. Sofieva, R. Wing, and C.-Z. Zou. 2020. Observed Temperature Changes in the Troposphere and Stratosphere from 1979 to 2018. Journal of Climate, 33(19):8165–8194. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of

Climate.

Rachel A. Stratton, Catherine A. Senior, Simon B. Vosper, Sonja S. Folwell, Ian A. Boutle, Paul D. Earnshaw, Elizabeth Kendon, Adrian P. Lock, Andrew Malcolm, James Manners, Cyril J. Morcrette, Christopher

Short, Alison J. Stirling, Christopher M. Taylor, Simon Tucker, Stuart Webster, and Jonathan M. Wilkinson. 2018. A Pan-African Convection-Permitting Regional Climate Simulation with the Met Office Unified Model: CP4-Africa. Journal of Climate, 31(9):3485–3508. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

Bi-Yun SUN and Xun-Qiang BI. 2019. Validation for a tropical belt version of WRF: sensitivity tests on radiation and cumulus convection parameterizations. Atmospheric and Oceanic Science Letters, 12(3):192–200. Publisher: Taylor & Francis _eprint: https://doi.org/10.1080/16742834.2019.1590118.

Neil C. Swart, Jason N. S. Cole, Viatcheslav V. Kharin, Mike Lazare, John F. Scinocca, Nathan P. Gillett, James Anstey, Vivek Arora, James R. Christian, Sarah Hanna, Yanjun Jiao, Warren G. Lee, Fouad Majaess, Oleg A. Saenko, Christian Seiler, Clint Seinen, Andrew Shao, Michael Sigmond, Larry Solheim, Knut von Salzen, Duo Yang, and Barbara Winter. 2019. The Canadian Earth System Model version 5 (CanESM5.0.3). Geoscientific Model Development, 12(11):4823–4873. Publisher: Copernicus GmbH.

Neil C. Swart, John C. Fyfe, Nathan Gillett, and Gareth J. Marshall. 2015. Comparing Trends in the Southern Annular Mode and Surface Westerly Jet. Journal of Climate, 28(22):8840–8859. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

Silje Lund Sørland, Christoph Schär, Daniel Lüthi, and Erik Kjellström. 2018. Bias patterns and climate change signals in GCM-RCM model chains. Environmental Research Letters, 13(7):074017. Publisher: IOP Publishing.

Alain T. Tamoffo, Leonard K. Amekudzi, Torsten Weber, Derbetini A. Vondou, Edmund I. Yamba, and Daniela Jacob. 2021. Mechanisms of Rainfall Biases in Two CORDEX-CORE Regional Climate Models at Rainfall Peaks over Central Equatorial Africa. Journal of Climate, 35(2):639–668. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

Chao Tang, Béatrice Morel, Martin Wild, Benjamin Pohl, Babatunde Abiodun, Chris Lennard, and Miloud Bessafi. 2019. Numerical simulation of surface solar radiation over Southern Africa. Part 2: projections of regional and global climate models. Climate Dynamics, 53(3):2197–2227.

Elena Tarnavsky, David Grimes, Ross Maidment, Emily Black, Richard P. Allan, Marc Stringer, Robin Chadwick, and Francois Kayitakire. 2014. Extension of the TAMSAT Satellite-Based Rainfall Monitoring over Africa and from 1983 to Present. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 53(12):2805–2822. Publisher: American Meteorological Society.

Hiroaki Tatebe, Tomoo Ogura, Tomoko Nitta, Yoshiki Komuro, Koji Ogochi, Toshihiko Takemura, Kengo Sudo, Miho Sekiguchi, Manabu Abe, Fuyuki Saito, Minoru Chikira, Shingo Watanabe, Masato Mori, Nagio Hirota, Yoshio Kawatani, Takashi Mochizuki, Kei Yoshimura, Kumiko Takata, Ryouta O’ishi, Dai Yamazaki, Tatsuo Suzuki, Masao Kurogi, Takahito Kataoka, Masahiro Watanabe, and Masahide Kimoto. 2019. Description and basic evaluation of simulated mean state, internal variability, and climate sensitivity in MIROC6. Geoscientific Model Development, 12(7):2727–2765. Publisher: Copernicus GmbH.

Karl E. Taylor, Ronald J. Stouffer, and Gerald A. Meehl. 2012. An Overview of CMIP5 and the Experiment Design. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 93(4):485–498. Publisher: American Meteorological

Society.

Claudia Tebaldi and Reto Knutti. 2007. The use of the multi-model ensemble in probabilistic climate projections. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 365(1857):2053–2075. Publisher: Royal Society.

Henri Theil. 1992. A Rank-Invariant Method of Linear and Polynomial Regression Analysis. In Baldev Raj and Johan Koerts, editors, Henri Theil’s Contributions to Economics and Econometrics: Econometric Theory and Methodology, Advanced Studies in Theoretical and Applied Econometrics, pages 345–381. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht.

David W. J. Thompson, Susan Solomon, Paul J. Kushner, Matthew H. England, Kevin M. Grise, and David J. Karoly. 2011. Signatures of the Antarctic ozone hole in Southern Hemisphere surface climate change. Nature Geoscience, 4(11):741–749. Number: 11 Publisher: Nature Publishing Group.

David W. J. Thompson and John M. Wallace. 2000. Annular Modes in the Extratropical Circulation. Part I: Month-to-Month Variability. Journal of Climate, 13(5):1000–1016. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

David W. J. Thompson and Jonathan D. Woodworth. 2014. Barotropic and Baroclinic Annular Variability in the Southern Hemisphere. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 71(4):1480–1493. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences.

Baijun Tian and Xinyu Dong. 2020. The Double-ITCZ Bias in CMIP3, CMIP5, and CMIP6 Models Based on Annual Mean Precipitation. Geophysical Research Letters, 47(8):e2020GL087232. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2020GL087232.

M. C. Tirado, D. Hunnes, M. J. Cohen, and A. Lartey. 2015. Climate Change and Nutrition in Africa. Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition, 10(1):22–46. Publisher: Taylor & Francis _eprint: https://doi.org/10.1080/19320248.2014.908447.

Carolien Toté, Domingos Patricio, Hendrik Boogaard, Raymond Van der Wijngaart, Elena Tarnavsky, and Chris Funk. 2015. Evaluation of Satellite Rainfall Estimates for Drought and Flood Monitoring in Mozambique. Remote Sensing, 7(2):1758–1776.

Anna M. Ukkola, Martin G. De Kauwe, Michael L. Roderick, Gab Abramowitz, and Andrew J. Pitman. 2020. Robust Future Changes in Meteorological Drought in CMIP6 Projections Despite Uncertainty in Precipitation. Geophysical Research Letters, 47(11):e2020GL087820. _eprint: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2020GL087820.

E. van Meijgaard, L. H. van Ulft, W. J. van de Berg, F. C. Bosveld, B. J. J. M. van den Hurk, G. Lenderink, and A. P. Siebesma. 2008. The KNMI regional atmospheric climate model RACMO version 2.1. TR 302, KNMI, The Netherland.

Sander Van Vooren, Bert Van Schaeybroeck, Jan Nyssen, Michiel Van Ginderachter, and Piet Termonia. 2019. Evaluation of CORDEX rainfall in northwest Ethiopia: Sensitivity to the model representation of the orography. International Journal of Climatology, 39(5):2569–2586. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/joc.5971.

Robert Vautard, Nikolay Kadygrov, Carley Iles, Fredrik Boberg, Erasmo Buonomo, Katharina Bülow, Erika Coppola, Lola Corre, Erik van Meijgaard, Rita Nogherotto, Marit Sandstad, Clemens Schwingshackl, Samuel Somot, Emma Aalbers, Ole B. Christensen, James M. Ciarlò, Marie-Estelle Demory, Filippo Giorgi, Daniela Jacob, Richard G. Jones, Klaus Keuler, Erik Kjellström, Geert Lenderink, Guillaume Levavasseur, Grigory Nikulin, Jana Sillmann, Cosimo Solidoro, Silje Lund Sørland, Christian Steger, Claas Teichmann, Kirsten Warrach Sagi, and Volker Wulfmeyer. 2020. Evaluation of the large EURO-CORDEX regional climate model ensemble. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, n/a(n/a):e2019JD032344. _eprint: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2019JD032344.

N. Vigaud, B. Pohl, and J. Crétat. 2012. Tropical-temperate interactions over southern Africa simulated by a regional climate model. Climate Dynamics, 39(12):2895–2916.

A. Voldoire, D. SaintMartin, S. Sénési, B. Decharme, A. Alias, M. Chevallier, J. Colin, J.-F. Guérémy, M. Michou, M.-P. Moine, P. Nabat, R. Roehrig, D. Salas y Mélia, R. Séférian, S. Valcke, I. Beau, S. Belamari, S. Berthet, C. Cassou, J. Cattiaux, J. Deshayes, H. Douville, C. Ethé, L. Franchistéguy, O. Geoffroy, C. Lévy, G. Madec, Y. Meurdesoif, R. Msadek, A. Ribes, E. Sanchez-Gomez, L. Terray, and R. Waldman. 2019. Evaluation of CMIP6 DECK Experiments With CNRM-CM6-1. Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems, 11(7):2177–2213. _eprint: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2019MS001683.

A. Voldoire, E. Sanchez-Gomez, D. Salas y Mélia, B. Decharme, C. Cassou, S. Sénési, S. Valcke, I. Beau, A. Alias, M. Chevallier, M. Déqué, J. Deshayes, H. Douville, E. Fernandez, G. Madec, E. Maisonnave, M.-P. Moine, S. Planton, D. Saint-Martin, S. Szopa, S. Tyteca, R. Alkama, S. Belamari, A. Braun, L. Coquart, and F. Chauvin. 2013. The CNRM-CM5.1 global climate model: description and basic evaluation. Climate Dynamics, 40(9):2091–2121.

John M. Wallace and Peter V. Hobbs. 2006. Atmospheric Science, Second Edition: An Introductory Survey, 2nd edition edition. Academic Press, Amsterdam; Boston.

Erika A. Warnatzsch and David S. Reay. 2019. Temperature and precipitation change in Malawi: Evaluation of CORDEX-Africa climate simulations for climate change impact assessments and adaptation planning. Science of The Total Environment, 654:378–392.

Richard Washington, Rachel James, Helen Pearce, Wilfried M. Pokam, and Wilfran Moufouma-Okia. 2013. Congo Basin rainfall climatology: can we believe the climate models? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 368(1625):20120296. Publisher: Royal Society.

Richard Washington and Anthony Preston. 2006. Extreme wet years over southern Africa: Role of Indian Ocean sea surface temperatures. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 111(D15). _eprint:

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2005JD006724.

Masahiro Watanabe, Tatsuo Suzuki, Ryouta O’ishi, Yoshiki Komuro, Shingo Watanabe, Seita Emori, Toshihiko Takemura, Minoru Chikira, Tomoo Ogura, Miho Sekiguchi, Kumiko Takata, Dai Yamazaki, Tokuta Yokohata, Toru Nozawa, Hiroyasu Hasumi, Hiroaki Tatebe, and Masahide Kimoto. 2010. Improved Climate Simulation by MIROC5: Mean States, Variability, and Climate Sensitivity. Journal of Climate, 23(23):6312–6335. Publisher: American Meteorological Society.

D. Watson-Parris. 2021. Machine learning for weather and climate are worlds apart. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 379(2194):20200098. Publisher: Royal Society.

Oliver Watt-Meyer, Noah Domino Brenowitz, Spencer Koncius Clark, Brian Henn, Anna Kwa, Jeremy J. McGibbon, Walter A. Perkins, and Christopher S. Bretherton. 2021. Correcting weather and climate models by machine learning nudged historical simulations. Archive Location: world Publisher: Earth and Space Science Open Archive Section: Atmospheric Sciences.

C. J. Willmott and K Matsuura. 2001. Global Air Temperature and Precipitation Archive. James C. Winter, Gary L. Darmstadt, Alexandria B. Boehm, and Jennifer Davis. 2021. The impact of on-premises piped water supply on fecal contamination pathways in rural Zambia. npj Clean Water, 4(1):1–8. Number: 1 Publisher: Nature Publishing Group.

Modise Wiston and Kgakgamatso Marvel Mphale. 2019. Mesoscale Convective Systems: A Case Scenario of the ‘Heavy Rainfall’ Event of 15–20 January 2013 over Southern Africa. Climate, 7(6):73. Number: 6 Publisher: Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute.

Piotr Wolski, David Lobell, Dáithí Stone, Izidine Pinto, Olivier Crespo, and Peter Johnston. 2020. On the role of anthropogenic climate change in the emerging food crisis in southern

Africa in the 2019–2020 growing season. Global Change Biology, 26(5):2729–2730. _eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/gcb.15047.

Tim Woollings and Mike Blackburn. 2012. The North Atlantic Jet Stream under Climate Change and Its Relation to the NAO and EA Patterns. Journal of Climate, 25(3):886–902. Publisher: American Meteorological Society.

Jia Wu and Xuejie Gao. 2020. Present day bias and future change signal of temperature over China in a series of multi-GCM driven RCM simulations. Climate Dynamics, 54(1):1113–1130.

Man-Li C. Wu, Oreste Reale, Siegfried D. Schubert, Max J. Suarez, Randy D. Koster, and Philip J. Pegion. 2009. African Easterly Jet: Structure and Maintenance. Journal of Climate, 22(17):4459–4480.

Klaus Wyser, Twan van Noije, Shuting Yang, Jost von Hardenberg, Declan O’Donnell, and Ralf Döscher. 2020. On the increased climate sensitivity in the EC-Earth model from CMIP5 to CMIP6. Geoscientific Model Development, 13(8):3465–3474. Publisher: Copernicus GmbH.

Pingping Xie and Phillip A. Arkin. 1997. Global Precipitation: A 17-Year Monthly Analysis Based on Gauge Observations, Satellite Estimates, and Numerical Model Outputs. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 78(11):2539–2558. Publisher: American Meteorological Society.

Pingping Xie and Phillip A. Arkin. 1998. Global Monthly Precipitation Estimates from Satellite-Observed Outgoing Longwave Radiation. Journal of Climate, 11(2):137–164. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.

Nkosinathi G. Xulu, Hector Chikoore, Mary-Jane M. Bopape, and Nthaduleni S. Nethengwe. 2020. Climatology of the Mascarene High and Its Influence on Weather and Climate over Southern Africa. Climate, 8(7):86. Number: 7 Publisher: Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute. Hu Yang, Gerrit Lohmann, Jian Lu, Evan J. Gowan, Xiaoxu Shi, Jiping Liu, and Qiang Wang. 2020. Tropical Expansion Driven by Poleward Advancing Midlatitude Meridional Temperature Gradients. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 125(16):e2020JD033158. _eprint:

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2020JD033158.

Bo Young Yim, Sang-Wook Yeh, and Byung-Ju Sohn. 2016. ENSO-Related Precipitation and Its Statistical Relationship with the Walker Circulation Trend in CMIP5 AMIP Models. Atmosphere, 7(2):19. Number: 2 Publisher: Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute.

Chunxi Zhang and Yuqing Wang. 2017. Projected Future Changes of Tropical Cyclone Activity over the Western North and South Pacific in a 20-km-Mesh Regional Climate Model. Journal of Climate, 30(15):5923–5941. Publisher: American Meteorological Society Section: Journal of Climate.


Εισερχόμενη Αναφορά

  • Δεν υπάρχουν προς το παρόν εισερχόμενες αναφορές.