[Εξώφυλλο]

Μελέτη και στατιστική ανάλυση της διάρκειας των εποχών στον Ευρωπαϊκό χώρο = On the study and the statistical analysis of the season time-length over the European region

Αναστασία Χ. Συκιώτη

Περίληψη


Στην παρούσα εργασία πραγματοποιήθηκε η μελέτη της επέκτασης ή της συρρίκνωσης (αποσταθεροποίηση) της διάρκειας των εποχών στην ευρύτερη περιοχή της Ευρώπης ώστε να δοθεί απάντηση σε σχέση με τη διάρθρωση των εποχών αναφορικά με τις ενδεχόμενες σταδιακές αλλαγές στη διάρκεια και τα κλιματικά χαρακτηριστικά τους. Ιδιαίτερη έμφαση δόθηκε στις ενδιάμεσες εποχές (άνοιξη και φθινόπωρο) καθώς και στην πιθανή επέκταση της θερινής περιόδου. Επιχειρήθηκε τόσο ο εντοπισμός όσο και η στατιστική ανάλυση των ενδεχόμενων νέων αυτών εποχιακών συνθηκών ώστε να προκύψουν αξιόπιστες εκτιμήσεις των επιπτώσεων των αλλαγών αυτών σε ποικίλους τομείς των ανθρώπινων δραστηριοτήτων (οικονομία, τουρισμός, γεωργία κ.α.). Για το σκοπό αυτό χρησιμοποιήθηκαν ημερήσια δεδομένα μέσων, μεγίστων και ελαχίστων θερμοκρασιών για 367 σταθμούς από 29 χώρες τις Ευρώπης για τη χρονική περίοδο 1961-2017. Για κάθε μία από τις χρονοσειρές αυτές υπολογίστηκαν τα αντίστοιχα 5ήμερα για όλη τη διάρκεια του έτους (73 5ήμερα) ενώ δόθηκε ιδιαίτερη έμφαση στα 5ήμερα που αντιστοιχούν στις εποχές της άνοιξης και του φθινοπώρου. Στη συνέχεια υπολογίστηκαν οι ανωμαλίες των 5ημέρων αυτών σε σχέση με μία περίοδο αναφοράς που καλύπτει τα έτη 1971-2000. Ακολούθως υπολογίστηκε η τάση του εκάστοτε 5ημέρου για όλη την περίοδο μελέτης, καθώς και η στατιστική σημαντικότητα αυτής, ώστε να βρεθεί αν το κάθε 5ήμερο (των μέσων, μεγίστων και ελαχίστων θερμοκρασιών) έχει διαφοροποιηθεί (θερμότερο ή ψυχρότερο) με την πάροδο των ετών. Βασικό εύρημα της παρούσας μελέτης αποτέλεσε το γεγονός ότι για τους περισσότερους σταθμούς μελέτης τα πενταήμερα τείνουν να είναι θερμότερα στις δύο εποχές, και ειδικότερα στην περίπτωση της άνοιξης. Η θέρμανση αυτή στην πλειονότητα των πενταημέρων χαρακτηρίζεται από στατιστική σημαντικότητα κάτι που ενισχύει το συμπέρασμα ότι η θερινή περίοδος τείνει να επεκτείνεται εις βάρος, κατά κύριο λόγο, της άνοιξης αλλά και του φθινοπώρου.

This study main objective is to meet the arising questions concerning the potential changes in the duration of seasonal structure and the respective climatic features by investigating the seasonal time length expansion or shrinkage in the area of Europe. Particular emphasis was placed on the shrinkage of intermediate seasons (spring and autumn) and the relevant expansion of the summer duration.  The overall impact of seasonal changes was analyzed in terms of a variety of human activities (economy, tourism, agriculture etc.) under the scope of the possible new seasonal behavior via a thorough statistical analysis of climatic data. For this purpose, daily average, maximum and minimum temperature data were used that were derived from 367 stations in 29 European countries, for the period 1961-2017. For each of these time series, the corresponding 5-day average was calculated for each year (73 5-day intervals), with a special emphasis on the 5-day intervals that belong to the spring and autumn. The anomalies of these 5-day intervals were then calculated against a reference period, which covers the years 1971-2000. Subsequently, the trend of each of the 5-day interval was calculated, along with its statistical significance, in order to investigate whether each 5-day intervals of the mean, maximum and minimum temperature have changed over the years. A key finding of this study is the fact that for the most stations studied the 5-day intervals tend to be warmer in both seasons, especially in the case of spring. This warming in the majority of the 5-day intervals is characterized by statistical significance, a fact that reinforces the conclusion that the summer season tends to expand, in such a way that spring and autumn time length tend to shrink.

Πλήρες Κείμενο:

PDF

Αναφορές


Agnew, M.D. and Viner, D. (2001). Potential Impacts of Climate Change on International Tourism. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 3(1), pp.37–60.

Alpert, P., Osetinsky, I., Ziv, B. and Shafir, H. (2004). A New Seasons Definition Based on Classified Daily Synoptic Systems: An Example for the Eastern Mediterranean. International Journal of Climatology, 24(8), pp.1013–1021.

Amelung, B., Nicholls, S. and Viner, D. (2007). Implications of Global Climate Change for Tourism Flows and Seasonality. Journal of Travel Research, 45(3), pp.285–296.

Apadula, F., Bassini, A., Elli, A. and Scapin, S. (2012). Relationships between Meteorological Variables and Monthly Electricity Demand. Applied Energy, 98, pp.346–356.

Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (2004). Impacts of a warming Artic. New York: Cambridge University Press, p.140.

Axelsen, J.B., Yaari, R., Grenfell, B.T. and Stone, L. (2014). Multiannual Forecasting of Seasonal Influenza Dynamics Reveals Climatic and Evolutionary Drivers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(26), pp.9538–9542.

Aziz-Boaron, O., Klausner, Z., Hasoksuz, M., Shenkar, J., Gafni, O., Gelman, B., David, D. and Klement, E. (2012). Circulation of Bovine Ephermal Fever in the Middle East—Strong Evidence for Transmission by Winds and Animal Transport. Veterinary Microbiology, 158(3–4), pp.300–307.

Bajat, B., Blagojević, D., Kilibarda, M., Luković, J. and Tošić, I. (2014). Spatial Analysis of the Temperature Trends in Serbia during the Period 1961–2010. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 121(1–2), pp.289–301.

Barford, C.C., Wofsy, S.C., Goulden, M.L., Munger, J.W., Pyle, E.H., Ubranski, S.P., Hutyra, L., Saleska, S.R., Fitziarrald, D. and Moore, K. (2001). Factors Controlling Long- and Short-Term Sequestration of Atmospheric CO2 in a Mid-latitude Forest. Science, 294(5547), pp.1688–1691.

BarOn, R.R.V. (1975). Seasonality in Tourism: A Guide to the Analysis of Seasonality and Trends for Policy Making. Technical Series No 2. London: Economist Intelligence Unit Ltd.

Bessec, M. and Fouquau, J. (2008). The Non-Linear Link between Electricity Consumption and Temperature in Europe: A Threshold Panel Approach. Energy Economics, 30(5), pp.2705–2721.

Bigano, A., Hamilton, J.M. and Tol, R.S.J. (2006). The Impact of Climate on Holiday Destination Choice. Climatic Change, 76(3–4), pp.389–406.

Brázdil, R., Budíková, M., Auer, I., Böhm, R., Cegnar, T., Fako, P., Lapin, M., Gajić-Čapka, M., Zaninović, K., Koleva, E., Niedźwiedź, T., Ustrnul, Z.,

Szalai, S. and Weber, R.O. (1996). Trends of Maximum and Minimum Daily Temperatures in Central and Southeastern Europe. International Journal of Climatology, 16(7), pp.765–782.

Brázdil, R., Chromá, K., Dobrovolný, P. and Tolasz, R. (2009). Climate Fluctuations in the Czech Republic during the Period 1961-2005. International Journal of Climatology, 29(2), pp.223–242.

Brinkmann, W.A.R. (1979). Growing Season Length as an Indicator of Climatic Variations? Climatic Change, 2(2), pp.127–138.

Brown, J.A. (1976). Shortening of Growing Season in the US Corn Belt. Nature, 260(5550), pp.420–421.

Butler, R. (2001). Seasonality in Tourism: Issues and Implications. In: Seasonality in Tourism. Oxford: Pergamon.

Carter, T.R. (1998). Changes in the Thermal Growing Season in Nordic Countries during the past Century and Prospects for the Future. Agricultural and Food Science, 7(2), pp.161–179.

Cassarino, T.G., Sharp, E. and Barrett, M. (2018). The Impact of Social and Weather Drivers on the Historical Electricity Demand in Europe. Applied Energy, 229, pp.176–185.

Cavanaugh, N.R. and Shen, S.S.P. (2014). Northern Hemisphere Climatology and Trends of Statistical Moments Documented from GHCN-Daily Surface Air Temperature Station Data from 1950 to 2010. Journal of Climate, 27(14), pp.5396–5410.

Chmielewski, F. and Rötzer, T. (2002). Annual and Spatial Variability of the Beginning of Growing Season in Europe in Relation to Air Temperature Changes. Climate Research, 19, pp.257–264.

Chyhareva, A. (2017). Seasons' length and dates of temperature transition under the climate change. 10.13140/RG.2.2.18589.92644.

Coursolle, C., Margolis, H.A., Giasson, M.-A., Bernier, P.-Y., Amiro, B.D., Arain, M.A., Barr, A.G., Black, T.A., Goulden, M.L., McCaughey, J.H., Chen, J.M.,

Dunn, A.L., Grant, R.F. and Lafleur, P.M. (2012). Influence of Stand Age on the Magnitude and Seasonality of Carbon Fluxes in Canadian Forests. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 165, pp.136–148.

Cox, N.J. and Subbarao, K. (2000). Global Epidemiology of Influenza: Past and Present. Annual Review of Medicine, 51(1), pp.407–421.

Danielewska, A., Urbaniak, M. and Olejnik, J. (2015). Growing Season Length as a Key Factor of Cumulative Net Ecosystem Exchange over the Pine Forest Ecosystems in Europe. International Agrophysics, 29(2), pp.129–135.

del Río, S., Fraile, R., Herrero, L. and Penas, A. (2007). Analysis of Recent Trends in Mean Maximum and Minimum Temperatures in a Region of the

NW of Spain (Castilla Y León). Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 90(1–2), pp.1–12.

de Luis, M., Čufar, K., Saz, M.A., Longares, L.A., Ceglar, A. and Kajfež-Bogataj, L. (2012). Trends in Seasonal Precipitation and Temperature in Slovenia during 1951–2007. Regional Environmental Change, 14(5), pp.1801–1810.

Domonkos, P. and Tar, K. (2003). Long-term Changes in Observed Temperature and Precipitation Series 1901-1998 from Hungary and Their Relations to Larger Scale Changes. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 75(3–4), pp.131–147.

Dukes, J.S., Pontius, J., Orwig, D., Garnas, J.R., Rodgers, V.L., Brazee, N., Cooke, B., Theoharides, K.A., Stange, E.E., Harrington, R., Ehrenfeld, J.,

Gurevitch, J., Lerdau, M., Stinson, K., Wick, R. and Ayres, M. (2009). Responses of Insect Pests, Pathogens, and Invasive Plant Species to Climate Change in the Forests of Northeastern North America: What Can We Predict? Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 39(2), pp.231–248.

Dumitrescu, A., Bojariu, R., Birsan, M.-V., Marin, L. and Manea, A. (2014). Recent Climatic Changes in Romania from Observational Data (1961–2013). Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 122(1–2), pp.111–119.

Easterling, D.R. (1997). Maximum and Minimum Temperature Trends for the Globe. Science, 277(5324), pp.364–367.

Easterling, D.R., Evans, J.L., Groisman, P.Y., Karl, T.R., Kunkel, K.E. and Ambenje, P. (2000). Observed Variability and Trends in Extreme Climate

Events: A Brief Review. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 81(3), pp.417–425.

El Kenawy, A., López-Moreno, J.I. and Vicente-Serrano, S.M. (2012). Trend and Variability of Surface Air Temperature in Northeastern Spain (1920–2006): Linkage to Atmospheric Circulation. Atmospheric Research, 106, pp.159–180.

Fält-Nardmann, J.J.J., Tikkanen, O.-P., Ruohomäki, K., Otto, L.-F., Leinonen, R., Pöyry, J., Saikkonen, K. and Neuvonen, S. (2018). The Recent Northward Expansion of Lymantria Monacha in Relation to Realised Changes in Temperatures of Different Seasons. Forest Ecology and Management, 427, pp.96–105.

Falvey, M. and Garreaud, R.D. (2009). Regional Cooling in a Warming World: Recent Temperature Trends in the Southeast Pacific and along the West Coast of Subtropical South America (1979–2006). Journal of Geophysical Research, 114.

Feidas, H., Makrogiannis, T. and Bora-Senta, E. (2004). Trend Analysis of Air Temperature Time Series in Greece and Their Relationship With Circulation Using Surface and Satellite Data: 1955-2001. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 79(3–4), pp.185–208.

Ferrante, M., Lo Magno, G.L. and De Cantis, S. (2018). Measuring Tourism Seasonality across European Countries. Tourism Management, 68, pp.220–235.

Fraenkel, M., Yitshak-Sade, M., Beacher, L., Carmeli, M., Mandelboim, M., Siris, E. and Novack, V. (2017). Is the Association between Hip Fractures and Seasonality Modified by Influenza Vaccination? An Ecological Study. Osteoporosis International, 28(9), pp.2611–2617.

Franke, J., Goldberg, V., Eichelmann, U., Freydank, E. and Bernhofer, C. (2004). Statistical Analysis of Regional Climate Trends in Saxony, Germany. Climate Research, 27, pp.145–150.

Friedlingstein, P., Dufresne, J.-L., Cox, P.M. and Rayner, P. (2003). How Positive Is the Feedback between Climate Change and the Carbon Cycle? Tellus B: Chemical and Physical Meteorology, 55(2), pp.692–700.

Gallinat, A.S., Primack, R.B. and Wagner, D.L. (2015). Autumn, the Neglected Season in Climate Change Research. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 30(6), p.364.

Giannakopoulos, C. and Psiloglou, B. (2006). Trends in Energy Load Demand for Athens, Greece: Weather and Non-Weather Related Factors. Climate Research, 31, pp.97–108.

Giannakopoulos, C., Le Sager, P., Bindi, M., Moriondo, M., Kostopoulou, E. and Goodess, C.M. (2009). Climatic Changes and Associated Impacts in the Mediterranean Resulting from a 2 °C Global Warming. Global and Planetary Change, 68(3), pp.209–224.

Gómez Martín, M.B. (2005). Weather, Climate and Tourism: A Geographical Perspective. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(3), pp.571–591.

Gould, E.A. and Higgs, S. (2009). Impact of Climate Change and Other Factors on Emerging Arbovirus Diseases. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 103(2), pp.109–121.

Haines, A., McMichael, A.J. and Epstein, P.R. (2000). Environment and Health: 2. Global Climate Change and Health. Canada Medical Association J., 163, pp.729–734.

Hamilton, J.M. (2002). Climate and the Destination Choice of German Tourists: Working Papers FNU-15, Research unit Sustainability and Global Change, Hamburg University, revised Aug 2003.

Hamilton, J.M. and Lau, M.A. (2005). The Role of Climate Information in Tourist Destination Choice Decision - Making. In: Tourism and Global Environmental Change : Ecological, Social, Economic and Political Interrelationships. London, England: Routledge, pp.229–250.

Hancock, P.A., Brackley, R. and Palmer, S.C.F. (2011). Modelling the Effect of Temperature Variation on the Seasonal Dynamics of Ixodes Ricinus Tick Populations. International Journal for Parasitology, 41(5), pp.513–522.

Heino, R., Brázdil, R., Førland, E., Tuomenvirta, H., Alexandersson, H., Beniston, M., Pfister, C., Rebetez, M., Rosenhagen, G., Rösner, S. and Wibig, J. (1999). Progress in the Study of Climate Extremes in Northern and Central Europe. Climatic Change, 42(1), pp.151–181.

Hochman, A., Harpaz, T., Saaroni, H. and Alpert, P. (2018). The Seasons’ Length in 21st Century CMIP5 Projections over the Eastern Mediterranean. International Journal of Climatology, 38(6), pp.2627–2637.

Huschke, R.E. (1959). Glossary of Meteorology. Boston, Mass.: American Meteorological Society, p.638.

Huth, R. and Pokorná, L. (2005). Simultaneous Analysis of Climatic Trends in Multiple Variables: An Example of Application of Multivariate Statistical Methods. International Journal of Climatology, 25(4), pp.469–484.

Hu, Z.-Z. (2003). Long-Term Climate Variations in China and Global Warming Signals. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108(D19).

IPCC (2014). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

Jones, P.D. (1995). Maximum and Minimum Temperature Trends in Ireland, Italy, Thailand, Turkey and Bangladesh. Atmospheric Research, 37(1–3), pp.67–78.

Jones, P.D. and Briffa, K.R. (1995). Growing Season Temperatures over the Former Soviet Union. International Journal of Climatology, 15(9), pp.943–959.

Jones, P.D. and Moberg, A. (2003). Hemispheric and Large-Scale Surface Air Temperature Variations: An Extensive Revision and an Update to 2001. Journal of Climate, 16(2), pp.206–223.

Jones, P.D., Briffa, K.R., Osborn, T.J., Moberg, A. and Bergström, H. (2002). Relationships between Circulation Strength and the Variability of Growing-Season and Cold-Season Climate in Northern and Central Europe. The Holocene, 12(6), pp.643–656.

Karl, T.R., Jones, P.D., Knight, R.W., Kukla, G., Plummer, N., Razuvayev, V., Gallo, K.P., Lindseay, J., Charlson, R.J. and Peterson, T.C. (1993). Asymmetric Trends of Daily Maximum and Minimum Temperature. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 74, pp.1007–1023.

Keeling, C.D., Chin, J.F.S. and Whorf, T.P. (1996). Increased Activity of Northern Vegetation Inferred from Atmospheric CO2 Measurements. Nature, 382(6587), pp.146–149.

Keevallik, S. and Russak, V. (2001). Changes in the Amount of Low Clouds in Estonia. International Journal of Climatology, 21(3), pp.389–397.

Kostopoulou, E. and Jones, P.D. (2005). Assessment of Climate Extremes in the Eastern Mediterranean. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 89(1–4), pp.69–85.

Kozak, M. (2002). Comparative Analysis of Tourist Motivations by Nationality and Destinations. Tourism Management, 23(3), pp.221–232.

Kramer, K., Leinonen, I. and Loustau, D. (2000). The Importance of Phenology for the Evaluation of Impact of Climate Change on Growth of Boreal, Temperate and Mediterranean Forests Ecosystems: An Overview. International Journal of Biometeorology, 44(2), pp.67–75.

Kruger, A.C. and Shongwe, S. (2004). Temperature Trends in South Africa: 1960–2003. International Journal of Climatology, 24(15), pp.1929–1945.

Lamb, H.H. (1950). Types and Spells of Weather around the Year in the British Isles : Annual Trends, Seasonal Structure of the Year, Singularities. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 76(330), pp.393–429.

Lamb, H.H. (1972). Climate. Vol. 2 : Present, Past and Future. London: Methuen.

Lelieveld, J., Hadjinicolaou, P., Kostopoulou, E., Chenoweth, J., El Maayar, M., Giannakopoulos, C., Hannides, C., Lange, M.A., Tanarhte, M., Tyrlis, E. and Xoplaki, E. (2012). Climate Change and Impacts in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East. Climatic Change, 114(3–4), pp.667–687.

Linderholm, H.W. (2006). Growing Season Changes in the Last Century. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 137(1–2), pp.1–14.

Lise, W. and Tol, R.S.J. (2001). Impact of Climate on Tourist Demand. Climatic Change, 55(4), pp.429–449.

Lohmann, M. and Kaim, E. (1999). Weather and Holiday Preference—Image, Attitude and Experience. The Tourist Review, 54(2), pp.54–64.

Maddison, D. (2001). In Search of Warmer Climates? The Impact of Climate Change on Flows of British Tourists. Climatic Change, 49(1/2), pp.193–208.

Mamara, A., Argiriou, A.Α. and Anadranistakis, M. (2015). Recent Trend Analysis of Mean Air Temperature in Greece Based on Homogenized Data. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 126(3–4), pp.543–573.

McCarty, J.P. (2001). Ecological Consequences of Recent Climate Change. Conservation Biology, 15(2), pp.320–331.

Menzel, A. (2000). Trends in Phenological Phases in Europe between 1951 and 1996. International Journal of Biometeorology, 44(2), pp.76–81.

Menzel, A. (2002). Phenology: Its Importance to the Global Change Community. Climatic Change, 54(4), pp.379–385.

Menzel, A., Jakobi, G., Ahas, R., Scheifinger, H. and Estrella, N. (2003). Variations of the Climatological Growing Season (1951-2000) in Germany Compared with Other Countries. International Journal of Climatology, 23(7), pp.793–812.

Mikkonen, S., Laine, M., Mäkelä, H.M., Gregow, H., Tuomenvirta, H., Lahtinen, M. and Laaksonen, A. (2014). Trends in the Average Temperature in Finland, 1847–2013. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment, 29(6), pp.1521–1529.

Mintel International Group (1991). Special Report - Holidays. London, England: Leisure Intelligence, Mintel International Group.

Moriondo, M., Good, P., Durao, R., Bindi, M., Giannakopoulos, C. and Corte-Real, J. (2006). Potential Impact of Climate Change on Fire Risk in the

Mediterranean Area. Climate Research, 31, pp.85–95.

Myneni, R.B., Keeling, C.D., Tucker, C.J., Asrar, G. and Nemani, R.R. (1997). Increased Plant Growth in the Northern High Latitudes from 1981 to 1991. Nature, 386(6626), pp.698–702.

Pan, Z., Arritt, R.W., Takle, E.S., Gutowski, W.J., Anderson, C.J. and Segal, M. (2004). Altered Hydrologic Feedback in a Warming Climate Introduces a “Warming Hole”. Geophysical Research Letters, 31(17).

Pellizzaro G., Arca B., Dubrovsky M., Ventura A., Bortolu S., Duce P. (2013) Local impact assessment of climate change on fire season length. in: proceedings "Climate change and its implications on ecosystem and society" (First Annual Conference of SICS, Lecce, Italy, 23-24.9.2013), ISBN 978–88–97666–08–0. p.670-684.

Penuelas, J. and Fillela, I. (2001). Responses to a Warming World. Science, 294(5543), pp.793–795.

Perry, A.H. (2000). Impacts of Climate Change on Tourism in the Mediterranean: Adaptive Responses. SSRN Electronic Journal, FEEM Working Paper No. 35.00.

Perry, A.H. (2001) More Heat and Drought - Can Mediterranean Tourism Survive and Prosper? Paper presented at the First International Workshop on Climate, Tourism and Recreation, Halkidiki, Greece, 5–10 October.

Perry, A.H. (2006). Will Predicted Climate Change Compromise the Sustainability of Mediterranean Tourism? Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 14(4), pp.367–375.

Piñol, J., Terradas, J. and Lloret, F. (1998). Climate Warming, Wildfire Hazard, and Wildfire Occurrence in Coastal Eastern Spain. Climatic Change, 38(3), pp.345–357.

Pokorná, L., Kučerová, M. and Huth, R. (2018). Annual Cycle of Temperature Trends in Europe, 1961–2000. Global and Planetary Change, 170, pp.146–162.

Psiloglou, B.E., Giannakopoulos, C., Majithia, S. and Petrakis, M. (2009). Factors Affecting Electricity Demand in Athens, Greece and London, UK: A Comparative Assessment. Energy, 34(11), pp.1855–1863.

Ridderstaat, J., Oduber, M., Croes, R., Nijkamp, P. and Martens, P. (2014). Impacts of Seasonal Patterns of Climate on Recurrent Fluctuations in Tourism Demand: Evidence from Aruba. Tourism Management, 41, pp.245–256.

Robeson, S.M. (2002). Increasing Growing-Season Length in Illinois during the 20th Century. Climatic Change, 52(1/2), pp.219–238.

Romero, R., Ramis, C. and Guijarro, J.A. (1999). Daily Rainfall Patterns in the Spanish Mediterranean Area: An Objective Classification. International Journal of Climatology, 19(1), pp.95–112.

Rutty, M. and Scott, D. (2010). Will the Mediterranean Become “Too Hot” for Tourism? a Reassessment. Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development, 7(3), pp.267–281.

Sandels, C., Widén, J. and Nordström, L. (2014). Forecasting Household Consumer Electricity Load Profiles with a Combined Physical and Behavioral Approach. Applied Energy, 131, pp.267–278.

Schwartz, M.D., Ahas, R. and Aasa, A. (2006). Onset of Spring Starting Earlier across the Northern Hemisphere. Global Change Biology, 12(2), pp.343–351.

Scott, D., Gössling, S., & de Freitas, C. (2008). Climate Preferences for Tourism: Evidence from Canada, New Zealand and Sweden. Climate Research, 38, pp. 61-73.

Serquet, G., Marty, C., Dulex, J.-P. and Rebetez, M. (2011). Seasonal Trends and Temperature Dependence of the Snowfall/Precipitation-day Ratio in Switzerland. Geophysical Research Letters, 38(7).

Smith, J.., Schellnhuber, H.J., Mirza, M.M.., Fankhauser, S., Leemans, R., Lin, E., Ogallo, L., Pittock, B., Richels, R., Rosenzweig, C., Tol, R.S.., Weyant,

J.. and Yohe, G.. (2001). Vulnerability to Climate Change and Reasons for Concern: A Synthesis. In: Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and

Vulnerability: Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. [online] Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.913–967. Available at: https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/vulnerability-to-climate-change-and-reasons-for-concern-a-synthes [Accessed 5 May 2019].

Spano, D., Cesaraccio, C., Duce, P. and Snyder, R.L. (1999). Phenological Stages of Natural Species and Their Use as Climate Indicators. International Journal of Biometeorology, 42(3), pp.124–133.

Sparks, T.H. and Carey, P.D. (1995). The Responses of Species to Climate over Two Centuries: An Analysis of the Marsham Phenological Record. Journal of Ecology, 83(2), pp.321–329.

Sparks, T.H. and Menzel, A. (2002). Observed changes in seasons: An overview. International Journal of Climatology, 22(14), pp.1715–1725.

Thornton, H.E., Hoskins, B.J. and Scaife, A.A. (2016). The Role of Temperature in the Variability and Extremes of Electricity and Gas Demand in Great Britain. Environmental Research Letters, 11.

Trenberth, K.E. (1983). What Are the Seasons? Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 64(11), pp.1276–1282.

Türkeş, M. (1998). Influence of Geopotential Heights, Cyclone Frequency and Southern Oscillation on Rainfall Variations in Turkey. International Journal of Climatology, 18(6), pp.649–680.

United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) (2007). Tourism Market Trends: Europe. Madrid, Spain: United Nations.

United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) (2009). World Tourism Barometer. Madrid, Spain: United Nations.

Valor, E., Meneu, V. and Caselles, V. (2001). Daily Air Temperature and Electricity Load in Spain. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 40(8), pp.1413–1421.

Vedin, H. (1990). Frequency of Rare Weather Events during Periods of Extreme Climate. Geografiska Annaler. Series A, Physical Geography, 72(2), pp.151–155.

Walther, A. and Linderholm, H.W. (2006). A Comparison of Growing Season Indices for the Greater Baltic Area. International Journal of Biometeorology, 51(2), pp.107–118.

Wenz, L., Levermann, A. and Auffhammer, M. (2017). North–South Polarization of European Electricity Consumption under Future Warming. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(38), pp.E7910–E7918.

White, M.A., Running, S.W. and Thornton, P.E. (1999). The Impact of Growing-Season Length Variability on Carbon Assimilation and Evapotranspiration over 88 Years in the Eastern US Deciduous Forest. International Journal of Biometeorology, 42(3), pp.139–145.

Wilks, D. S. (2011), Statistical methods in the atmospheric sciences, Elsevier Academic Press, Amsterdam; Boston.

Xoplaki, E., Luterbacher, J., Burkard, R., Patrikas, I. and Maheras, P. (2000). Connection between the Large Scale 500 hPa Geopotential Height Fields and Precipitation over Greece during Wintertime. Climate Research, 14, pp.129–146.

Xoplaki, E., Luterbacher, J., Paeth, H., Dietrich, D., Steiner, N., Grosjean, M. and Wanner, H. (2005). European Spring and Autumn Temperature Variability and Change of Extremes over the Last Half Millennium. Geophysical Research Letters, 32(15).

Yaari, R., Katriel, G., Huppert, A., Axelsen, J.B. and Stone, L. (2013). Modelling Seasonal Influenza: The Role of Weather and Punctuated Antigenic Drift. Journal of The Royal Society Interface, 10(84).

Zhang, X., Vincent, L.A., Hogg, W.D. and Niitsoo, A. (2000). Temperature and Precipitation Trends in Canada during the 20th Century. Atmosphere-Ocean, 38(3), pp.395–429.

Zhao, N., Cao, G., Vanos, J.K. and Vecellio, D.J. (2017). The Effects of Synoptic Weather on Influenza Infection Incidences: A Retrospective Study Utilizing Digital Disease Surveillance. International Journal of Biometeorology, 62(1), pp.69–84.


Εισερχόμενη Αναφορά

  • Δεν υπάρχουν προς το παρόν εισερχόμενες αναφορές.